Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Size

up to nearly 2m in height and >1 m wide

Description

Anoxycalyx joubini, often referred to as a volcano sponge, is a large vase or pear shaped sponge occurring as singletons or small groups. Some are tall and wide enough for a person to fit inside. The pores in the walls are quite obvious, especially inside it. Such pores can harbour a wide range of other animals: looking inside can reveal many arthropods particularly amphipods but also sometimes pycnogonans and shrimps as well as many types of worm. This species grows very slowly and specimens may be very old. These sponges are a good location to see the yellow seastar Acodontaster conspicuous, which may even occur in clusters over it.

Description

Colossendeis specimens are beautiful creatures highly admired in collections due to their larger size compared to other pycnogonid species. The bizarre morphology of pycnogonids is in full display in this genus in which most of the species have a proboscis longer than the trunk. Colossendeis australis is known as a circumpolar and eurybathic (15-3935 m) species and can be recognized by a unique combination of characters that include a downcurved swollen proboscis, subchelate oviger strigilis and short propodal claws. The biology of Colossendeidae in general is poorly known, there is no information about their reproductive biology as no eggs or larvae have ever been found. On the other hand this lineage of pycnogonids could be one of the most ancient according to the phylogeny proposed (Arango pers. comm.).

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Pale and translucent, with long feather-like hairs or spines on its forelimbs. Grows up to 1cm long.

Ecology

Haplocheira plumosa is a filter feeder, using the feathery net of hairs on its forelimbs to sift food from the water column.*
Antarctic amphipods are generally preyed on by fish and squid.

Description

Large and yellow or orange with red eyes and hairs on its antennae. Reaches up to 5.5 cm in length

Ecology

Little is know about its feeding habits but it is probably an opportunistic predator and scavenger

Source Name

Census of Antarctic Marine Life

Description

Astrotoma agassizii, the large brittle star belonging to the suborder Euryalina, has long, flexible, and mobile arms that use to capture the prey from the water column.

Ecology

The analysis of the stomach contents showed that the diet consisted of members of only two major taxa, Crustacea and Chaetognatha. Copepods occurred in 75.6% of brittle stars containing food and were the dominant prey group, followed by mysids (34.6%), chaetognaths (10.2%), and euphausiids (8.9%). Other prey included unidentified crustacean and organic remains, ostracodes, and amphipods. Euchaeta antarctica and Calanoides acutus constituted about 80% of the stomach content copepods (Dearborn et al. 1986).

Description

Odontaster validus is the commonest and most abundant sea star inhabiting the shallow environment around the Antarctic continent (Dearborn, 1977; McClintock et al., 1988).

Ecology

Odontaster validus has a late sexual maturity and slow rate of growth. This starfish may grow only 1-2 g year-1, takes 3-6 years to reach sexual maturity (Pearse, 1969). O. validus may live for about 100 years (Pearse, 1969). The starfish O. validus has a demersal feeding larva with a brief pelagic phase to allow the dispersion without exposing the larvae to the hazardous surface waters. The larval development of Odontaster is extremely slow; it remains in the bipinnaria larval stage for about 2 months in the laboratory condition (Chia, 1970). In McMurdo Sound the period of spawning is from June to mid October (Pearse et al., 1986; Bosch & Pearse, 1990). O. validus is an omnivorous. Its diet includes the bivalves Limatula hodgsoni and Laternula elliptica, the sponges Rossella racovitzae, Rossella nuda, Scolymastra joubini, Tetilla leptoderma, and Homaxinella balfourensis, the hydroid Halecium arboreum, the sea star Acodontaster conspicuus, the sea urchin Sterechinus neumayeri, the isopod Glyptonotus antarcticus, bryozoans, suspended matter, animal dtritus, red algae, amphipods, crustacean nauplii larvae, ostracods, shrimp, ectoprocts, diatoms, and seal feces (Conlan et al., 2006). O. validus is prey of the sea anemone Urticinopsis antarcticus and the sea star Macroptycaster accrescens (Conlan et al., 2006).

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Diplasterias brucei normally has five arms, but there is a 6-armed form common at South Georgia. Colour is very variable, from pale blue-green to yellow or orange and it grows to a size of around 25cm across.

Ecology

Unlike many seastars, Diplasterias brucei does not appear to eat sponges. Its primary food source is molluscs, and in particular the bivalve Limatula hodgsoni, but it will also scavenge on dead matter. It is eaten by the anemone Urticinopsis antarctica. Diplasterias brucei broods its young until they are fully developed into juvenile seastars.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Large for an amphipod, reaching up to 4cm, and with an overall roundish shape.

Ecology

Epimeria robusta is an ambush predator and feeds on a variety of small invertebrates including plankton, sponges, worms, echinoderms and other crustaceans. In its turn it is preyed on by fish and squid

Description

The characteristic posture of the icefish is “sitting” on the botton kept by its elongate pelvic fins (Montgomery & Macdonald, 1998).

Ecology

The channichthyid Chionodraco hamatus is a common icefish within the cold waters of the high-Antarctic zone. It is an endemic species to the Antarctic region. Off Terra Nova Bay, as well as in the Ross Sea, Chionodraco hamatus is by far the most abundant and eurybathic icefish, both in terms of biomass and frequency of occurrence (Eastman & Hubold 1999; Vacchi et al., 1999).
Chionodraco hamatus spawns in spring (September-October) in the Mawson Sea and throughout summer (December-March) in the Ross Sea, Davis Sea and Weddell Sea (Shandikov & Faleeva 1992; Duhamel et al., 1993; Vacchi et al., 1996). As in other high-Antarctic channichthyids, C. hamatus females are characterised by having low fecundity and they produce only a few thousand but large (3.5-5 mm) eggs (Vacchi et al. 1996). C. hamatus probably spawns a single batch of oocytes once a year (La Mesa et al., 2003).

Source Name

EG-BAMM, Ryan Reisinger & Bob Pitman

Identification

Killer whales are strongly sexually dimorphic: adult males are typically 1 m or so longer than females but can weigh twice as much. Males have a tall (over 2 m in some cases), triangular dorsal fin whereas adult females and juveniles have a shorter, falcate dorsal fin. The oval or paddle-shaped flippers are also much more massively developed in males than in females. The large head is conical with a poorly defined beak.
The following refers to the genus Orcinus generally. Characteristic features of the different Southern Ocean types are described afterwards.
Killer whales have robust bodies with a conical head and rather blunt snout with a poorly defined beak. The dorsal fin is situated mid-back and is strongly sexually dimorphic: adult males have a tall, typically triangular dorsal fin which may grow to over 2 m in some cases, while adult females and juveniles have a falcate dorsal fin measuring < 1 m in adult females. The pectoral flippers are large relative to the body (as well as absolutely – up to 2.0 m in adult males) and are oval or paddle-shaped, rather than the sickle shape of other dolphins.
Their colouration is striking, consisting of highly contrasting areas of black and white. Ventrally, they are white from the tip of the lower jaw and throat, to behind the anus. This white band narrows between the black flippers and again just behind the umbilicus; it extends up and back on each side of the tail stock forming a conspicuous white patch on each flank. The underside of the flukes is white with a narrow black trailing edge; the caudal peduncle between the flukes and just behind the anus is typically black. There is a white, elliptical ‘eye patch’ above and slightly behind the eye and a grey ‘saddle patch’ behind and below the dorsal fin. Although the eye patch shows individual variation - even within pods - the overall size, shape, and orientation of the eye patch is generally diagnostic for the various Southern Ocean types. The saddle patch is usually conspicuous in high latitude populations but is often reduced or largely absent in warm water populations.
Pack ice, Gerlache and Ross Sea killer whales have a dark grey dorsal cape and lighter grey body, which gives them a distinctly two-tone grey and white appearance when viewed in good light. The cape extends forward and up from the saddle patch’s lowest point, passes over the eye patch and dips back down at the front of the eye patch. Sometimes the cape has a thin white margin formed by a forward extension of saddle patch. Animals often have a yellow cast, due to a film of diatoms (Bennettella ceticola) on the body; this shows up more conspicuously in pack ice and Gerlache killer whales due to their lighter coloration, but is less apparent in the darker, type A whales.
1) Type A killer whale
A black and white form with no visible cape and a medium sized eye patch oriented parallel to the body axis.
2) Large type B or pack ice killer whale
A two-toned grey form with a darker dorsal cape; eye patch at least twice as large as type A killer whale but also oriented parallel to the body axis.
3) Small type B or Gerlache killer whale
A two-toned grey form with a darker dorsal cape; eye patch large – but, on average, not as large as in pack ice killer whale – and oriented parallel to the body, but may be slightly angled. Smaller and slimmer than pack ice killer whale.
4) Type C or Ross Sea killer whale
A two-toned grey form with a darker dorsal cape; eye patch narrow and tilted downwards in the front at a 45° angle, often ill-defined (or ‘wispy’) at the back. Smallest known killer whale (see Size below).
5) Type D or Subantarctic killer whale
A black and white form with no visible cape; eye patch extremely small and oriented parallel to the body axis. Bulbous head. Narrow, backswept dorsal fin.

Size

A worldwide population of at least 50,000 individuals has been estimated but this likely represents a substantial underestimate as abundance data are not available for vast areas. An estimate of 80,400 animals in the Southern Ocean has been produced. The population size around the Crozet Islands is about 100 animals and that at the Prince Edward Islands is about 40 individuals.

Description

Killer whales are among the oceans’ most iconic species. Their large size, striking appearance, complex social structure and top predator status give them great charisma. They are the apex predators in marine ecosystems and, as a species, have an incredibly varied diet. Considered among the most widely distributed non-human mammals on the planet, killer whales occur throughout the world’s oceans.
Killer whales (or orcas) are toothed whales (odontocetes) and the largest members of the dolphin family (Delphinidae). They are currently recognized as a single species - Orcinus orca - but various populations show consistent differences in morphology, foraging behaviour, social organization, vocal behaviour and genetic structure. The differences are so large that in some cases these ‘ecotypes’ are proposed to be different species. Currently, 5 distinct types are recognised in the Southern Ocean:
1) Type A killer whale
2) Large type B or pack ice killer whale
3) Small type B or Gerlache killer whale
4) Type C or Ross Sea killer whale
5) Type D or Subantarctic killer whale

Ecology

Group sizes vary widely, from solitary individuals to groups of several hundred animals. Type A killer whale groups appear usually to be fewer than 20 animals. Pack ice killer whale groups are often less than 10 animals, while Gerlache killer whale groups often number 50 or more. Ross Sea killer whale groups are larger still, with some groups larger than 100 but these may represent several groups coming together for feeding or socializing. Subantarctic killer whales are known only from a single stranding event in 1955 and a small number of recent at-sea sightings. Reported group sizes average 18 individuals, ranging from 9-35.
Very little is known of the social organization of killer whales around Antarctica, but this can presumably be inferred to some degree from long term studies at other locations. Killer whales are very social and show strong, long-term associations between individuals. In the eastern North Pacific fish-eating resident killer whales show lifelong association between mothers and their offspring, meaning individuals never disperse from their natal social unit. The basic social unit – the ‘matriline’ – is a stable group of 2-9 (on average, 4) animals which comprises a female and as many as three generations of her and her daughter’s offspring. One to three matrilines that likely share a common maternal ancestor form a ‘pod’ – a less stable social unit in which the matrilines may be apart for weeks or months – and pods form clans, which are defined by the similarity of their vocal behaviour. Mammal-eating transient (or Bigg’s) killer whales are socially philopatric to a lesser degree, with dispersal occurring in both sexes. This difference in social organization likely arises from the constraints on group size for mammal-eating killer whales in general. Bigg’s matrilines typically contain only an adult female and one or two of her offspring and interactions among matrilines are dynamic, such that there is no unit equivalent to the resident pod. Long-term data from the Crozet Islands demonstrate long-lasting social bonds with pods (in this case, animals which spend more than 50% of their time together) of 1-10 animals. Preliminary findings from the Prince Edwards Islands indicate a social structure similar to that of eastern North Pacific Bigg’s killer whales.
Like other odontocetes, killer whales use sound for echolocation and communication. They produce three distinct types of vocalizations: echolocation clicks, whistles, and pulsed calls. Clicks are short pulses of sound, usually produced in a series, and are used in echolocation for orientation and prey detection. Whistles and pulsed calls are thought to play a role in communication. In the eastern North Pacific, resident killer whales whistles are heard primarily in social situations when whales are close together whereas pulsed calls are heard most often when whales are spread out and foraging, or when groups meet. The most common pulsed calls of resident killer whales are ‘discrete calls’ and pods have unique vocal repertoires or ‘dialects’ of 7-17 of these calls. A portion of this vocal repertoire may be shared with other pods and the degree of similarity in calls reflects relatedness of the pods. These dialects are stable over generations and likely culturally transmitted through vocal mimicry in offspring. Bigg’s killer whales vocalize less and produce more single (or ‘cryptic’) echolocation clicks to avoid being detected by their mammalian prey. Presumably they rely on passive listening as well as vision to detect their prey. Purported Ross Sea killer whales recorded near McMurdo Sound, Ross Sea, produced at least 7 discrete calls. While geographic variation was evident, their vocalizations had a similar structure to eastern North Pacific residents’.
Aerial behaviours such as breaching, spyhopping, lobtailing and flipper slapping are common, particularly while animals are socializing.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

A large amphipod, up to 8cm long.

Ecology

Eusirus perdentatus is a carnivorous predator with occasional scavenging behaviour. It mainly eats other small crustaceans and its diet also includes polychaete worms. It is preyed on by Trematomus fish.
Studies suggest that this animal only breeds once in its lifetime, and the juveniles hatch out at the end of the austral summer.

Description

5 arms. Colour varies but is generally pale orange to brownish, and fairly large (up to 30cm across)

Ecology

Feeds on various sponges including glass sponges and the slimy sponge Mycale acerata; a relatively fast growing sponge which could dominate sponge communities if not regulated by predation from Acodontaster conspicuous and from another seastar, Perknaster fuscus. Acodontaster conspicuous is itself known to be preyed upon by the worm Parbolasia corrugatus, the anemone Urticinopsis antarcticus and the much smaller seastar Odontaster validus, which will attack as a gang, after the initial solo assault. Predation by O. validus probably keeps Acodontaster populations under control.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Orange/green to white in colour. This species forms long thin, branching fronds. These curl lengthwise so the colony seems to ‘flop’ a bit. The branches are just a few zooids wide

Ecology

H. antarcticum is an endemic Antarctic species, which can be very abundant but is probably ignored by zoologists mistaking it for a clump of algae. It (suspension) feeds for just over half the year and probably grows quickly (for a polar species). Its rear surface is often colonised by spirorbid worms.
The main observed predators of H. antarcticum are pycnogonans, though it seems likely other animals might eat it too.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Mainly transparent but the thin skeleton is white in colour. This species forms thin sheet-like fronds up to 6cm high (almost like onion skin). Curls up if dried out. Although the genus is speciose, only one other species (C. curva) is common in Antarctic waters, and this is dark brown and barely transparent.

Ecology

This species is the shallowest occurring frond-like bryozoan. Unusually it is an annual species, growing new fronds each year from a base. These suspension feeders eat phytoplankton during the summer periods. Disjointed growth of zooids can be seen where it repairs damage to fronds. It is very lightly calcified and one of the faster growing bryozoans. Its main predators are probably nudibranchs, pycnogonans and seastars, though none have ever been seen to eat it.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

White to translucent in colour. This species is encrusting and is often so transparent that the tentacles and body can be seen inside the zooids when retracted. This species is the most common of its genus in shallows, though F. antarctica, F. cervicornis, F. crystallina, F. exigua, F. parvipora and F. proxima also occur.

Ecology

In places this species represents more than 90% of the bryozoan colonies and is sometimes more abundant than the tiny white spirorbid worms. Typically growth in previous years contrasts in appearance from that in the present year, and when dry, faint annual rings can even be seen, enabling colonies to be aged. It is a fast growing pioneer species overgrown by almost all other encrusters. It is a suspension feeder and eats phytoplankton. It is probably grazed by limpets and echinoids.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

White to translucent in colour. This encrusting species is, like C. antarctica, very thinly calcified and has smaller male than female zooids. Characteristically there are three humps along the length of each zooid pointing towards the aperture. Colonies vary in shape but are usually round.

Ecology

This species is typically found on boulders and pebbles and sometimes on organisms as an epibiont. It is a poor competitor, overgrown by many other encrusters. Like other bryozoans it is a suspension feeder and eats phytoplankton. It is eaten by pycnogonans and probably incidentally grazed by limpets and echinoids.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Grows as distinctive yellow or brown spheres with large trumpet-shaped papillae. The sponge reaches up to 50cm diameter.

Ecology

Inflatella belli is a suspension feeder and contains diatoms living within its cells, but their role is unclear.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Size

Up to 25cm height

Description

Colonies of Isosecuriflustra rubefacta occur in groups of hundreds to thousands in continental shelf waters. The species is generally found with two others: Nematoflustra flagellata and Himantozoum antarcticum. It is common and abundant but often only below 20m. It is typically brown to purple with striking bands across the frond, but these are not growth lines as described in Cellarinella watersi. The bands are formed by the brood chambers which are dark when containing embryos and translucent when these are released in January. Also unlike C. watersi the flustrid species are just unilaminar, that is active zooids are only on one surface of the frond not both. There are few Antarctic bryozoans for which more is known than this species. They feed for about 10 months of the year on small phytoplankton and grow nearly continuously. The fronds are colonised by a rich variety of tiny animals, a single frond may contain representatives of >8 major groups of animals and are a good place to look for marine mites.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Grey/ brown to white in colour. The zooids of this species are typically diamond in shape (hence its name), though the colonies, like all encrusters, have no definite shape. The apertures (from which the tentacles emerge) of each zooid have a shiny yellow/orange appearance.

Ecology

The species is a major space occupier in the shallows, particularly on boulder undersurfaces. It is a mid-ranked space competitor and rarely occurs as an epibiont on animals shells. A large (>1 yr old) colony was found on a piece of drift plastic at 68°S. It is a suspension feeder, eating phytoplankton during spring and summer months. It is probably grazed by limpets and echinoids.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Dark yellow to brown in colour. Like other bioconstructor species L. lyrulata changes from encrusting to erect foliaceous colonies, up to 1m in diameter. It is the only Antarctic species in its genus. It has a distinctive high collar around the tentacle hole, which gives the colony a dimpled impression.

Ecology

L. lyrulata forms major structures which trap sediment such that as well as harbouring terebellid polychaetes and sea cucumbers, colonies also contain many burrowing species. It is a good competitor for space against other bryozoans. L. lyrulata (suspension) feeds on phytoplankton for just six months of the year (one of the shortest periods amongst bryozoans). It is probably eaten by the nudibranch mollusc Pseudotritonia gracilidens as well as by pycnogonans

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Pink to orange in colour but may be translucent when young. This species is striking in colour but also has three distinctive, forward pointing, prongs (hence its name). Round the margins of each zooid are dimples. The only other Antarctic species (apart from at South Georgia), E. praestita, is not very similar.

Ecology

The species is common in the shallows, particularly in recently disturbed areas. It is a mid-ranked space competitor and rarely occurs as an epibiont on other animal shells. It is a suspension feeder, eating phytoplankton during spring and summer months. It is probably grazed by limpets and echinoids.

Source Name

EG-BAMM, Iain Field

Identification

Southern elephant seals are easy to identify on land due to their size and bulk. They have long bodies with relatively short flippers. They have large eyes and long whiskers for foraging in low light environments in the deep ocean. These seals are often grey in colour after their annual moult and move towards shades of dark brown or tan throughout the year. Pups are born with think black fur and at three weeks old moult and turn silvery grey. Female seals often have scaring around their neck and shoulders from males biting them during breeding. Adult males are massive in comparison to the females. The larger, older males are often known as beachmasters who control harems of females. Males have large heads with formidable canine teeth and conspicuous noses, or proboscises, during the breeding season. Their chests are large and have in thicker skin which tends to be wrinkled and scarred from breeding season battles between rival males. Disputes between males are commonly settled by posturing and roar-like vocalisations but sometimes lead to bloody combat.

Size

At birth pups weigh 40 kg and are 1.2 m long. Adult females are on average 450 kg and 3 m long, whereas males can weigh over 4000 kg and be 5 m in length.

Description

Southern elephant seals are phocids, or true seals, and are the largest of all seal species. They have a circumpolar distribution, breeding mainly on subantarctic islands. At sea they have been found to inhabit almost all of the Southern Ocean and travel long distances during their foraging migrations. They are highly sexually dimorphic, with males (over 4000 kg) being up to ten times larger than females (~450 kg). Males will attempt to join the breeding system at around seven years of age and may live to 14 years old, whereas the females are recruited into the breeding population from age four and may live to 24 years of age.
Their scientific name, Mirounga leonina, is thought to be a combination of the Australian aboriginal name for them ‘miouroung’ for the genus and the latin word for lion as the specific part, due to their roar and threat vocalisations.

Ecology

Southern elephant seals are major consumers of biomass, primarily squid and fish in the Southern Ocean. The life cycle of southern elephant seals is a combination of terrestrial haul-outs required for breeding (September to November) and moulting (December to March) interspersed with long periods at sea foraging. In the case of juveniles, the adult breeding haul-out is replaced with a mid-year haul-out (April to August).

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Yellow, orange, pink or white in colour. This brittle, foliaceous species is typically 4-20cm high and wide. It differs from most other bryozoans and animals by being ‘fenestrate’; that is, having lots of pores or windows in its walls. It is endemic to Antarctica and is the largest species in a highly speciose genus, at least 8 of which also occur in the Southern Ocean.

Ecology

In shallow water R. frigida tends to occur in ice-sheltered ledges, cliffs and overhangs but also occurs as small colonies on other animals such as ascidians. The foliose colonies it builds are frequently home to many species, such as worms (particularly polychaetes), amphipods, isopods and sea cucumbers. R. frigida, like all bryozoans, is a suspension feeder eating smaller phytoplankton. It feeds for about half the year when phytoplankton is most abundant.
The main predators of R. frigida are probably nudibranch sea slugs, though seastars and echinoids probably eat it incidentally.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Forms colonies of small, eight-tentacled polyps which are usually white and up to 1cm high.

Ecology

Clavularia frankliniana is a suspension feeder, mostly on matter resuspended from the sea-floor, and is preyed on by sea spiders and nudibranchs such as Tritoniella belli. It contains compounds which deter most potential predators. Despite this T. belli not only feeds on it but appears to store and re-use these deterrent compounds in it's own defense.
Clavularia frankliniana reproduces throughout the year, both by releasing larvae and by asexual fission.

Source Name

EG-BAMM, Tracey Rogers

Identification

Long, slim body, with disproportionately large head separated from body by marked constriction at neck. They are dark grey above; lighter below; with light and dark grey spots on throat and sides. They have a characteristic 'reptilian' appearance to their head; a wide gape of jaws and characteristically three-pronged teeth, which makes identification easy. The teeth of the leopard seal have a dual role; the large re-curved canines and incisors are designed for gripping and tearing prey, whereas the upper and lower tricuspid (three cusped) molars interlock to provide an efficient krill sieve. Leopard seals are sexually dimorphic, the females are larger than the males growing up to 3.8 m in length and weighing up to 500 kg, whereas males grow up to 3.3 m in length and weigh up to 300 kg.

Description

Long, slim body, with disproportionately large head separated from body by marked constriction at neck. They have a characteristic 'reptilian' appearance to their head; a wide gape of jaws and characteristically three-pronged teeth, which makes identification easy. The teeth of the leopard seal have a dual role; the large re-curved canines and incisors are designed for gripping and tearing prey, whereas the upper and lower tricuspid (three cusped) molars interlock to provide an efficient krill sieve. Leopard seals are sexually dimorphic, the females are larger than the males growing up to 3.8 m in length and weighing up to 500 kg, whereas males grow up to 3.3 m in length and weigh up to 300 kg.
Leopard seals have a muscular, somewhat reptilian head, with a sinuous neck, highly arched back and long powerful flippers. The body is dark grey above and light grey below and they have white throats with black spots. These distinctive spots are what give the Leopard seal its name. As one might expect, Leopard seals have impressively long, sharp teeth which are well-adapted for cutting and tearing the flesh of prey. Their streamlined bodies are built for speed and power; their smooth, impermiable skin allowing them to easily slice through the water on pursuit dives. These characteristics combined with excellent sight and smell have established Leopard seals as one of the consummate predators of the Antarctic.
Scientists still have much to learn about the reproductive behaviors of Leopard seals due to the difficulty of monitoring breeding sites on the shifting pack ice of the Antarctic. Solitary animals, by nature, Leopard seals come on land only during the breeding season and then only in pairs or small groups. Females dig a hole in the ice early in the austral summer where they give birth to single pup after a 9 month gestation. The female protects the pups until they can take care of themselves.

Leopard seals may live for 26 years or more. Their only known natural predator is the Killer Whale.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Size

up to nearly 30cm in height and 15 cm wide

Ecology

Colonies of Cellarinella watersi generally occur in groups of tens to hundreds on continental shelf waters. The Cellarinellids are, all but one, endemic to Antarctica and form great ‘forests’ over parts of the seabed, particularly deeper than 100m. The colonies are thin plates a few mm thick with growth lines obvious representing each years growth. If pieces break off in currents they grow rootlets and re-erect themselves to form new colonies, growing from the fragment. They feed on phytoplankton for about 4/5 months over the summer period when they appear ‘hairy’ underwater from all the tentacles protracting.

Source Name

EG-BAMM, Mark Hindell

Size

The global population size of crabeater seals and its long term trends are unclear. This uncertainly is due to extreme difficulty of conducting synoptic circumpolar surveys in the pack ice regions used by the seals. Estimates from the 1970 and 1980s put the global population at around 30 million seals, but these were revised down to 12 million as data improved in the 1990s. It has also been suggested the crabeater seal population increased throughout the 20th century as a consequence of increased krill availability arising from the decline in whale numbers. Despite some demographic data supporting this idea, there are no systematic survey data from before whaling to test the hypothesis. SCAR coordinated a international pack ice seal survey in 1999-2001 which estimated the population of eastern Antarctica (64–150°E, one quarter of the continental coastline) to be 914,200 seals (95% confidence limits: 698,600–1,302,000). Differences in the methodologies between this and earlier surveys in the region, prevented an assessment of trends, and there is still no revised global estimate for population size for this species.

Description

Crabeater seals have a circumpolar distribution, and are largely restricted to Antarctic pack-ice which makes them difficult to access for scientific study. Adults are 2.0-2.6 m in length, with females slightly larger than males. Weight can vary considerably throughout the year, but are typically in the range of 180-225 kg. Colour is also variable with old, pre-moult coats being silvery white and post-moult coats light to medium brown. The coats are often flecked with darker brown, and tend to be darker on the dorsal surface. They are commonly heavily scarred from encounters with leopard seals, a common predator of young crabeater seals, or from intra-specific interactions as adults during the breeding season. Crabeater seals have highly specialised and distinctive multi-cusped post canine teeth which can interlock to form a sieve when filter feeding on zooplankton.

Ecology

Crabeater seals may be one of the most abundant large mammals in the world, but paradoxically relatively little is known about their basic biology. Mortality in the first year of life is as high as 80%, largely due to predation by leopard seals. Other sources of mortality are killer whales, which have been seen hunting together to take adult crabeater seals off ice floes. They typically live for 20-25 years, but can live for up to 40 years.
There is a strong diel cycle to the seals haul-out behaviour. On average adult seals spend 20-30% of each day hauled out on ice floes, but this varies both with the time of day and with the time of year. On the WAP, the seals hauled more at night and focused foraging activity during the daylight hours. By the end of August the seals switch to hauling out during the day and foraging at night, which is also the pattern in the Ross Sea and EA. The change in haul out behaviour most likely reflects changes in the behaviour of their prey and the strategies that the seals use to catch their prey.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Usually orange in colour but varies from pink through to white. Colonies start life encrusting surfaces, but when two growing edges meet they grow against each other, up and out into the water column to form walls. These erect structures can be quite big (up to 15cm high).

Ecology

I. similis, though not widespread in Antarctica, is common and important where it does occur. The species is a bioconstructor and the spaces enclosed by its walls are a haven for many species, as is also the case with Reteporella frigida. I. similis often occurs in areas of higher water flow. It is a suspension feeder and eats phytoplankton, probably smaller ciliates and flagellates. Its main predators are probably nudibranch sea slugs and pycnogonans.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Size

colonies usually

Description

Inversiula nutrix is one of the few bryozoans, or even representatives of any invertebrate, which occurs in the intertidal zone. It is generally found on coastal boulders but does cover other surfaces such as animal shells or even drift plastic. The species dominates the shallow encrusting fauna on the shores of the Scotia Arc islands. Encrusting colonies can have feint annual growth lines and are usually orange/yellow to green but young colonies may be almost translucent. Colonies rarely live longer than 4 years and most in shallow water are less than 2 years old as they are smashed up by icebergs grounding. Many colonies bare scars and show ongoing repairs from scrapes that haven’t killed them completely. During the summer I. nutrix colonies appear hairy from all the feeding tentacles everted.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Size

Up to 11cm tall

Description

Lyrocteis flavopallidus is sedentary and usually found atop sponges or other elevated surfaces. However, it is able to move at least 1 to 2 m per day possible to attain a more advantageous feeding position. The systematic placement of «L. flavopallidus» is somewhat uncertain because neither the anatomy of the reproductive system nor the larval development is known; the species may represent a new genus and possibly a new family.)

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Usually white-brown in colour. This clearly stalked animal varies from a few to about 10cm long – the stalk is about 5mm diameter. The species is quite flexible and soft to touch, though the lower stalk is more firm and ‘plasticy’. The near transparent zooids can clearly be seen arranged around the common terminal cloaca. Similar species include Sycozoa gaimardi which is known from the magellanic and northern Antarctic Peninsula regions.

Ecology

There are probably other Antarctic species in this genus, or this species may really be several cryptic species. Colonies are usually found attached to other animals, such as sponges, erect bryozoans, large ascidians, brachiopod shells but they do also occur on rock. They are suspension feeders and eat phytoplankton.
A number of stalks can be seen with the heads chewed off though their predators are not known.

Description

Original description by Kirkpatrick (1907):
Sponge dome-shaped or spheroidal, attached or free. Surface beset with a dense short pile of cortical microtyles; with several usually elongated papillae with or without a large terminal orifice. Dermal pores distributed over the cortex, each pore opening into a single tubular canal in the cortex; the mouth or pore of the pore-canal is guarded with a ring of radiating cortical tyles. Flagellated chambers diplodal.
Skeleton formed mainly of radiating fibres composed of styles, with diverging brushes of spherostyles near the surface. Cortex with a surface-layer of densely packed tufts of small vertical tyles, and a subcortical layer of tangential styles and tyles.
Spicules.- Spherostyles 8 mm in length by 30 μm in diameter in the middle, and 14 μm in the region below the distal knob; distal knob 28 μm in diameter, hemispherical, with granular surface and with a few square teeth or serrations on the edge.
Styles straight, fusiform, blunt-pointed, 2.8 mm in length, 41 μm in diameter in the middle, 23 μm in diameter at the rounded end.
Cortical tyles curved, 146 μm long, head 3.25 μm in diameter; neck slender, 2.75 μm thick, with broad oar-blade-like shaft, but circular in section, 7 μm thick.
Styles of lower cortical tangential layer, also in choanosome, 900x20 μm. Tyles of the same layer nearly straight, 270 μm long, with head 7 μm in diameter and relatively thick neck 6.8 μm in diameter.
Slender, curved tyles, 460x10 μm scattered in choanosome.
Young specimens are oval, with one long closed papilla; the bundles of divergent exotyles are more or less separate and distinct, and the distal knobs retained and not broken off.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

White or orange head, either spherical or oblong, on a smooth, long, slender stalk. The head is up to 2.5 cm diameter and the entire sponge grows up to 20cm high.

Ecology

Stylocordyla borealis is a suspension feeder. It occurs in patches, probably due to its mode of reproduction, in which eggs are incubated inside the mother sponge and released as fully complete young sponges to settle nearby. Stylocordyla borealis has a system of rooting spicules which enables it to attach and grow in soft bottomed areas.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Greenish grey to yellow. Hemispherical and bristly with one or two large conical papillae which contract when disturbed. The sponge reaches a diameter of up to 11cm.

Ecology

Suspension feeder, preyed upon by seastars such as Perknaster fuscus (when juvenile) and Odontaster meridionalis, and by the dorid nudibranch Austrodoris kerguelenensis. Its larvae have been observed in aquaria to disperse by crawling

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Orangey brown or yellowish brown in colour, with a knobbly disc up to 2cm in diameter, and arms up to 6cm long.

Ecology

Ophiurolepis gelida is an active predator, capturing and feeding on a wide variety of invertebrates and in particular polychaete worms. It also feeds on detritus by gathering surface sediment into small mounds, which it then engulfs, consuming any food within the mud. It is preyed on by another brittle star, Ophiosparte gigas, and by the giant isopod Glyptonotus antarcticus, and possibly by fish and seastars. Ophiurolepis gelida is frequently parasitised by a brown sponge, Iophon radiatus, which grows over the disc and arms of the brittle star and may obscure its colour.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Has around 20-40 arms. The number of arms is very variable but increases with age, more arms being added as the sunstar grows. Labidiaster radiosus is large and reaches up to around 40cm across.

Ecology

Often seen with some of its arms raised in a feeding posture. Sunstars are primarily suspension feeders and catch food such as small crustaceans, plankton and sometimes fish from the water column, using their raised arms. Labidiaster radiosus has been considered to be the same animal as Labidiaster annulatus, consequently a lot of the literature for L. annulatus may actually apply to L. radiosus, however they are in fact two distinct species (they can be distinguished by close examination of the pedicellaria in the central disc).

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Usually yellow or orange in colour, with arms that are thick at the base but taper suddenly near the tip. This rarely seen seastar is very large, reaching up to 50cm across.

Ecology

Macroptychaster accrescens is an active predator on a variety of invertebrates such as gastropod and bivalve molluscs and brittle stars. It is also known to eat the seastars Odontaster validus and Odontaster meridionalis, and the sea urchin Sterechinus neumayeri

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

This species is very distinctive, being red and fairly squat, with a spiky outline. It is large for an amphipod and reaches up to 7cm in length

Ecology

Epimeria rubrieques is an ambush predator with a variety of prey. It can swim, but only rarely does so.

Source Name

Wikipedia

Description

The bootlace worm (Lineus longissimus) is in the phylum Nemertea or ribbon worms. It is one of the longest animals known, with specimens up to 30 metres (98 ft) long being reported. They may grow as long as 60 metres (200 ft), which would make it the longest animal in the world. They are however usually only 5 to 10 millimetres (0.20 to 0.39 in) in width. The body is brown with lighter (longitudinal) stripes. It is the most common nemertean found along the coasts of Britain. When handled it produces large amounts of thick mucus with a faint pungent smell. A specimen washed ashore in the aftermath of a severe storm by St Andrews, Scotland, in 1864, had a length of more than 55 metres (180 ft)[1], longer than the longest known Lion's mane jellyfish, the animal which is often considered to be the longest in the world. However records of extreme length should be taken with caution, because the body of nemerteans is flexible and easily stretches to much more than its usual length.
Lineus longissimus can be found on sandy shores, muddy shores, and in tide pools.
Like other nemerteans, Lineus longissimus feeds using its evertable proboscis. As it is in the class Anopla, their proboscis is not armed with a barbed stylet. Instead they have a cluster of sticky filaments at the end of their proboscis that they use to immobilize prey.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Barrukia cristata has a scale-covered, flattened body, up to 6.5cm long.

Ecology

Barrukia cristata is an ambush predator whose diet is reported to include crustaceans. It is known to be eaten by Trematomus fish. Individuals probably live for not much longer than a year and a half, and population studies indicate that three generations are produced per year.

Source Name

EG-BAMM, Maud Poisbleau & Laurent Demongin

Identification

Adults have very dark bluish-grey head and upperparts, clearly demarcated from white underparts. The underside of the flippers is mainly white with a variable dark pattern. The head is ornamented with yellow eyebrows (superciliary crests), long yellow feathers falling behind the eyes and black crests on the rear crown. The bill is red-orange, quite strong and bulbous. The legs are pinkish. The irises are red.
Juveniles differ from adults by the absence of yellow and black crests, the very faint yellow eyebrows, the chin and throat mottled of greyish and white, the darker bill. After the first moult when they are one year old, immature birds can be distinguished by their shorter crests and usually by their not fully dark chin. They are also a bit smaller than adults.
Southern rockhopper penguins are the second smallest penguins after the little penguins Eudyptula minor. The body size from the tip of the feet to the tip of the bill is only about 50 cm. Males and females are similar but bill depth and length of females tend to be slightly smaller. Because breeding southern rockhopper penguins endure several long fasting periods, their mass varies strongly several times between October and April. They reach a maximum of 4 - 4.5 kg when they arrive at the colony to breed and prior to the moult, and a minimum of about 2 - 2.5 kg after the first fasting period of the incubation, and also at the end of the moult.

Size

The global population is currently estimated at about 320,000 breeding pairs in the Falkland Islands (about 70% concentrated on three islands) and 564,000 breeding pairs in South America (174,000 in Argentina and 390,000 in Chile). The Falkland colonies have been regularly monitored since the 1980s. This population has shown major, long-term population changes, declining by 86%, from 1.5 million to 210,000 pairs from the 1930s to 2005. In 2010, the Falkland Islands population of rockhopper penguins was estimated to be 319,163 ± 18,503 breeding pairs, i.e. the second largest population (after Chile). The number of breeding pairs counted in 2010 was 50.6% higher than the number counted in 2005 which was the first count after a population crash in 2002-2003 (see below). The Falkland Islands rockhopper penguin population is best described as stable, but remains at less than 20% of the 1930s population estimate. The colonies of South America are much more difficult to monitor because of their difficult accessibility in remote uninhabited islands. Four islands hold 97% of the population that have slightly increased since the 1980s.
The causes for the decreases in southern rockhopper penguins have not been explained although some threats have been identified. At the Falkland Islands, a harmful algal bloom caused paralytic shellfish poisoning and death in a large number of seabirds in 2002-2003. That season, southern rockhopper penguins bred in low numbers and their breeding success was very low. For instance, the number of breeding pairs decreased by 30% from 2000 to 2005, a period during which a whole area census was made. In 1987, moulting birds were apparently starving (to death) possibly related to a food shortage caused by an unusually long period of hot weather conditions. Similarly, slight deviations from normal sea surface temperature (SST) had a negative impact on the survival rate of adults. Interactions with commercial fishing operations (competition and by-catch) are also suspected to be major threats for southern rockhopper penguins. Oil pollution frequently occurs along the coast of Argentina and may occur further south as well. Southern rockhopper penguins may be exposed to this threat. Egg collection was a common habit in the past but is now abandoned. Chick mortality can be high during long periods of hot weather or during strong rains.
Under the 2008 IUCN Red List Category, Birdlife International (2008) lists Eudyptes chrysocome chrysocome and E. c. filholi as Vulnerable. A re-evaluation is needed for the chrysocome (sub)-species only.

Description

Southern rockhopper penguins belong to the crested penguins, the largest genus of the Spheniciforms including seven other species of Eudyptes: eastern rockhopper penguin Eudyptes filholi, northern rockhopper penguin Eudyptes moseleyi, macaroni penguin Eudyptes chrysolophus, royal penguin Eudyptes schlegeli, Fiordland penguin Eudyptes pachyrhynchus, Snares penguin Eudyptes robustus and erect-crested penguin Eudyptes sclateri. The three subspecies of rockhopper penguins have recently been elevated to species level although, to date, BirdLife International recognises only two species (the southern rockhopper penguin Eudyptes chrysocome with the two subspecies chrysocome and filholi, and the northern rockhopper penguin Eudyptes moseleyi).

Ecology

The timing of the breeding cycle of the southern rockhopper penguin is remarkably constant between years, at least in the Falkland Islands where they are studied in detail. Here, they can breed for the first time when they are only three years old and adults breed every year, except in years of very poor environmental conditions. Nest site and mate fidelity are high. They tend to come back the colony to lay at the same date every year. The populations from South America, which are further from the Antarctic Polar Front than the ones from the Falklands, breed a few weeks earlier.
In the Falkland Islands, southern rockhopper penguins return from their winter migration at the beginning of October, the males arriving a few days before the females. The females start to lay in the last week of October. The laying period is highly synchronous, lasting about 10-14 days within a colony. The clutch size is always two eggs that are laid four days apart. With an average weight of 118 g, the second egg (B-egg) is about 20% bigger than the first one (A-egg) that averages 92 g. The incubation starts only when the B-egg is laid and lasts 32-34 days. The females take on the first incubation shift while the males forage at sea for about two weeks. By the time the males depart, the have fasted for six weeks and, their body mass is about half of their arrival mass. When males return, the females depart the colony (after around 7 weeks of fasting) and usually come back just before hatching. The length of this foraging trip varies individually; some females return every day to the colony. The eggs are always attended. Otherwise, they would be quickly predated. Eggs lost to predation or lost by accident are never replaced.
The males care for the chicks for about three weeks after hatching while the females provision offspring regularly, usually every day. After the chicks have entered the crèches, males make a short trip to regain condition after their second fasting period. Then both parents feed the chicks until they fledge. The chicks moult when they are about 40 days old and the moult lasts about two weeks. At the Falkland Islands, chicks normally fledge at the age of about ten weeks during the first half of February. The adults depart the colonies and go to sea to fatten up before returning to their breeding colonies to moult. Adults fast again during the 3-4 weeks of moult. Between mid-April and mid-May, they return to sea for five months for their winter migration.
Breeding success is highly variable among colonies and between years, ranging from 0.35 to 0.69 in the Falkland but being only 0.23 - 0.31 at Staten Island (Argentina) during two seasons. In the Falklands, the annual survival rate of adults can reach up to 96% and the return rate of juveniles three years after hatching averages 80% during years with good conditions. These rates are almost the highest of any penguin species, which is exceptional for such a small species. However, these rates can be much lower if conditions are bad, especially in case of food shortage prior to moult or during harmful algal blooms.
The main predators of eggs and chicks are brown skuas Catharacta antarctica antarctica and striated caracaras Phalcoboenus australis, and additionally kelp gulls Larus dominicanus. Other scavengers are dolphin gulls Larus scoresbii, turkey vultures Cathartes aura, southern giant petrels Macronectes giganteus, Chilean skuas Catharacta chilensis, crested caracaras Caracara plancus or even cats that take mainly abandoned eggs and dead chicks and adults. At sea, birds can be killed by sea lions, fur seals and maybe by southern giant petrels.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

5 arms. Porania antarctica is very variable in colour and has a domed appearance, with short arms. It usually grows to a size of around 10cm across.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Yellow/brown to white in colour. This species is encrusting as small colonies but grows erect to form large foliaceous colonies 200cm in diameter. It is one of a number of species in this genus. Similar species are A. decepiens, A. columnaris and A. latiavicularis (mainly restricted to Antarctic Peninsula) and A. monoceros (mainly Subantarctic).

Ecology

Some underwater walls and overhangs are dominated by the large foliaceous colonies of this species (e.g. at Signy Island). As many as 40 epifaunal species have been found living in a single A. inchoata colony. It is a good competitor for space against other bryozoans and encrusting animals, even sponges. It is a very unusual suspension feeder as it feeds throughout the entire year. It is eaten by the nudibranch mollusc Pseudotritonia gracilidens (which is camouflaged when against it) as well as by various pycnogonans.

Source Name

EG-BAMM, Barbara Wienecke

Identification

Royal penguins are the largest among the crested penguins. Their white faces and throats are the most distinguishing feature although some individuals have grey and even black faces and throats. For a long time, Royal penguins were considered a subspecies of Macaroni penguins. However, currently they are considered a separate species.

Size

In 1984/85, the population of Royal penguins was estimated to comprise about 850,000 breeding pairs. Although the population is sizeable, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature has listed Royal penguins as Vulnerable to extinction. This is because of their limited distribution range.
The penguins live in 57 colonies, most of which occur along the east and west coast of the island. Colonies vary in size from less than a thousand pairs to over 20,000 pairs. The largest colony with around half a million breeding pairs is located at Hurd Point at the southern coast of the island. This colony covers approximately 65,000 square metres and is close to sea level. Other colonies, like those at Sandy Bay and the Nuggets, are about 200 metres above sea level.
Although the population is thought to be stable, good long-term data on the population trend are not available.

Description

Royal penguins belong to the eudyptid or crested penguins that also include Erect-crested, Fiordland, Macaroni, Rockhopper and Snares penguins. Like in all penguins, males and females look very much alike but males are noticeably larger and have chunkier beaks than females.
Royal penguins are most easily confused with Macaroni penguins because of the similarities in their colourations. While the faces and throats of Macaroni penguins are all black, among the Royal penguins there is a range of colours from all black to all white. Royal penguins are the only penguin with pale gray to white facial colourings. Interestingly, females have more frequently darker faces than males. The colouration of the rest of the body is identical in males and females. The top and back of the head, back are dark bluish-black while the chest, belly are white. The flippers are mainly black but have a thin white trailing edge; their underside is white. The black and white body parts are clearly separated. Long dark yellow and black plumes (superciliary feathers) arise from a patch on the forehead and extend backwards.
The beaks are large and heavy set and dark orange-brown. At the base of the beaks are triangular pink patches of bare skin. The feet and legs are pink but the sole of the feet is black. The irises are reddish-brown.
Juveniles can be distinguished from adults only in their first year when they still lack the long superciliary feathers, which take about 3 years to develop fully. Juveniles are also often smaller than fully grown adults and have a greyish rather than white face and throat.
Royal penguins stand about 65-75 cm tall with both feet on the ground. Their body mass varies throughout the year. At the beginning of their breeding cycle, these penguins weigh usually 4.2 – 7.0 kilogram; males tend to be heavier than females. Post-breeding and prior to the moult they can reach a body mass of more than 8 kilogram.
Like Chinstrap and Adélie penguins, their tail feathers are much longer compared to other penguin species.

Ecology

Royal penguins spend the winter months at sea. They usually return to nesting sites of the previous season from late September to mid-October. Royal penguins also often have the same partner as in the previous season. The breeding colonies vary in size (see below). Many are located along the east and west coasts of the island. But some colonies are located nearly 1.5 km inland and more than 100 m above sea level.
The main land-based predators of Royal penguins are skuas and possibly Southern giant petrels. Until they were eradicated, Wekas (a land bird introduced from New Zealand by the sealers) probably took eggs. Rats also used to take some eggs and introduced cats preyed on chicks. Cats were eliminated from the island and an eradication program targeting rodents is currently underway.
Royal penguins sometimes ingest plastic rubbish floating in the ocean. Plastic pollution can kill the birds. Disturbance caused by people is generally managed by personnel in place. The biggest threats the penguins are facing are changes to their food supply due to climate change.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Colour variable depending on circumstances and diet; generally yellow to red, and blotchy. It reaches up to around 30cm across.

Ecology

Perknaster fuscus mainly eats sponges and specialises in particular on the slimy sponge, Mycale acerata, which is relatively fast growing and which, without predation, would potentially dominate sponge communities. Mycale acerata is one of the most toxic of Antarctic sponges and consequently avoided by most other sponge eaters. Perknaster fuscus also has chemicals in its body wall to defend it against predators, but is eaten by the anemone Urticinopsis antarcticus. It probably spawns once a year.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Small, individual, pale yellow to orange# cups, up to 5cm in diameter.

Ecology

Desmophyllum dianthus is a suspension feeder. Stony corals, particularly in the tropics, often have symbiotic algae living within their tissue whose by-products greatly supplement the corals food supply, but Desmophyllum dianthus lives too deep for these algae to grow, as they require light.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Pale to black and up to 20cm long (and 1.5cm wide)

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Very variable in colour, from pink, red or purple to pale yellow or white. Reaches up to around 30cm across.

Ecology

Psilaster charcoti employs a variety of feeding strategies: actively preying on some invertebrate species, scavenging on dead material and faeces and ingesting mud to utilise any food in it. It produces large amounts of mucous, which indicates that it probably is also sometimes a ciliary-mucous feeder, collecting falling detritus with the mucous, which is then passed along to the mouth and ingested.
Other names: Ripaster charcoti

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Yellow or brown in colour and roundish and squat in outline. Reaches up to 3.5cm long

Ecology

Waldeckia obesa is a necrophage. It eats carrion, usually in a highly decomposed state. Although it lives in sub-tidal waters one of its predators is known to be the Antarctic tern (Sterna vittata). Possibly in this instance predation occurs when carcasses containing amphipods get washed ashore, bringing them within easy reach of the birds.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Vivid red and thickly branching, reaching a size of up to 30cm high

Ecology

Kirkpatrickia variolosa is a suspension feeder and preyed on by seastars, particularly Perknaster fuscus when juvenile, and Acodontaster conspicuus. Derivatives from Kirkpatrickia variolosa have been found to have antitumour and antiviral properties, and are being trialled as potential anti-cancer drugs.

Source Name

EG-BAMM, Barbara Wienecke

Identification

Emperor penguins were first sighted on the second voyage of Captain James Cook (1773-1775). However, Johann Reinhold Forster, the naturalist on the voyage, failed to recognise the birds as a new species and noted them down as King penguins. It was only in 1844 that Emperor penguins were described as a separate species by George Robert Gray, then Head of ornithology at the British Museum. The genus name Aptenodytes (“wingless diver”) had already been assigned to King penguins. Gray chose the species name forsteri in honour of JR Forster.
King penguins are the closest relatives of Emperor penguins but they differ vastly in appearance and life history. Emperor penguins are much larger than King penguins and the kidney shaped auricular patch is less intensely coloured than the Paisley shaped ear patch of their cousins.

Size

Because of the remoteness of many of the emperor penguin colonies it is very difficult to establish a global population size. Many colonies have not been visited for several decades and recently found ones still need to be confirmed. There are just over 40 colonies that vary in size from a few hundred to a several ten thousand pairs. The largest known colonies (~16,000+ pairs) are located in the Weddell and Ross seas. Cape Washington, Ross Sea, is the largest known breeding colony where on average some 20,000 chicks hatch.
In 2009, British scientists used satellite images to look for emperor penguin colonies around Antarctica. This technology may proof useful as a tool to monitor remote colonies in the future and enable scientists to obtain much better information on the status of the global emperor penguin population.

Description

Emperor penguins are the largest and heaviest member of the penguin family. Males and females look alike but their songs differ. Measured from the tip of their beaks to the tip of their tails they are approximately 1 m long but when they are upright they stand about 70 cm tall. Their necks comprising 13 vertebrae are flexible and highly extendable. When an adult pulls in its head, the cervical vertebrae form a strong S-bend and shorten the appearance of the penguin.
The bodies of emperor penguins are cigar shaped and streamlined. The flippers are about 35 cm long and are highly specialised for fast underwater movement of around 14 km/h. Head, chin, throat and neck are black and contrast strongly with the auricular (ear) patches where the colours changes from a deep yellow on the top to a pale yellow to nearly white at the bottom. The upper part of the chest is soft yellow but most of the chest and underside of the flippers are a soft white which is demarcated from the dark grey-blue back by a black stripe. The beak is narrow and long with a curved tip. The mandibles are black and the mandibular plates on the lower mandible range in colour from pink to lilac. The feet and legs are black and the iris is dark brown.
The body mass is highly variable throughout the year. When arriving at the colony in late autumn, the penguins tend to weigh 30-40 kg, sometimes more. During courtship, mating and laying the penguins usually rely on their accumulated body reserves as the ice edge is often too distant to go on regular foraging trips. Most females weigh well less than 30 kg when they depart the colony after laying. Upon their return some two months later they are well fed while the males who have fasted for nearly four months have lost a third to half their body mass and weigh less than 25 kg. At the end of the breeding season, all adults need to fatten again in preparation for the annual moult.
It takes about 5 years for an emperor penguin to acquire its full mature plumage. Juveniles lack the yellow feathers on the chest and the ear patches. Their throats and chins are a soft grey and their beaks are entirely black.
Chicks are covered in soft grey down but their heads are black with a white mask around the eyes.

Source Name

EG-BAMM, Barbara Wienecke

Identification

Although often confused with their cousins, King penguins differ markedly from Emperor penguins: they are smaller and differently proportioned than Emperor penguins. The flippers and feet of King penguins are longer in proportion to their bodies than those of Emperor penguins. Also, the ear patches of King penguins are more intensely coloured than the ear patches of their cousins. Their back feathers are a dark slate gray rather than black. The mandibular plates of their beaks are orange and the feet are black. The iris is dark brown.
Immature King penguins lack the intense colours of their parents. Their ear patches and the top of their chest are a pale yellow. Intially their throats are greyish but become black as the birds mature. The beaks of fledglings are black.
Upon hatching, the chicks are covered in a spare greyish-brown down that is exchanged after a few days for the woolley, dense brown down that characterises them throughout their chickhood. Feet and beak are black.
The colouration of male and female King penguins looks alike but males tend to be slightly larger. However, there is much overlap between the genders and a large female can be difficult to distinguish from a small male. Measured from the tip of their beaks to the tip of their tails they are approximately 90 cm long but when they are upright they stand about 65 cm tall. Their necks comprising 13 vertebrae are flexible and highly extendable. When an adult pulls in its head, the cervical vertebrae form a strong S-bend and shorten the appearance of the penguin.
The bodies of King penguins are cigar shaped and streamlined. The flippers are about 32 to 34 cm long and are highly specialised for fast underwater movement. Head, chin, throat and neck are black and contrast strongly with the deep yellow paisley-shaped auricular (ear) patches. The upper part of the chest is also deep yellow but most of the chest and underside of the flippers are a soft white which is demarcated from the dark grey-blue back by a black stripe. The beak is narrow and long with a curved tip. The mandibles are black and the mandibular plates on the lower mandible range in colour from yellow or orange. The feet and legs are black and the iris is dark brown.
The body mass is highy variable throughout the year. When arriving at the colony at the start of the breeding season (October), the penguins weigh around 13 to 15 kg. Unlike their Antarctic cousins, King penguins can go to sea regularly during the chick rearing period since they are not restricted by seaice. Nevertheless, when feeding chicks the parents have to work hard and it is not uncommon to find adults that weigh only about 9 kg during the chick rearing period.
It takes about 2 to 3 years for a King penguin to acquire its full mature plumage. Juveniles have faint yellow feathers on the chest and the ear patches. Their throats and chins are a soft grey and their beaks are entirely black in their first year and then develop a pinkish colour. As they mature they gradually acquire the full intensity of adults. First breeders are on average 5 years old.
Chicks are covered in soft brown down; the early sealers thought they were a separate penguin species, the woolly penguin.

Size

The islands and island groups that are home to King penguins are usually occupied by several colonies. King penguins were cruelly slaughtered for their blubber oil in their tens of thousands (possibly hundreds of thousands) in the 19th and early 20th century. Some colonies were nearly driven into extinction. For example, in November 1951, only five King penguins were sighted at Spit Bay, one of them a chick, but in December 1954, no King penguins were seen at Spit Bay (Budd and Downes 1965). Today one of the largest colonies is located at Macquarie Island at Lusitania Bay. Here, only just over 3000 King penguins were left in 1930. The sealers did not keep good records on how many bird they killed and it is impossible to estimate how large the exploited colonies once were. But there were certainly many more in 1810 when the island was discovered than there were in 1930. The killing at Macquarie Island had stopped in 1918; the King penguin numbers started to recover and by 1980 there were an estimated 218 000 birds at Lusitania Bay (Rounsevell and Copson 1982).
The largest King penguin population is currently at the Crozet Islands where more than half a million pairs breed. In recent years, King penguins have been seen at a small beach at Terra de Fuego in Argentina. Whether or not they will try to establish a colony there is as yet unknown but the birds are carefully watched by the locals.

The size of the global population ranges between 2 and 3 million. Note, however, that it is very challenging to obtain good population estimates of these penguins. There is no time of the year where one could count, for example, all the incubating males (like in Adélie penguins) because of the long and highly asynchronous breeding cycle of King penguins. The composition of the colony in terms of breeders still feeding the chick from the previous, prospecting birds, moulters, new breeders changes throughout the breeding season making it difficult to determine the number of breeders present at any one time. If the number of breeders cannot be ascertained, it is also problematic to estimate breeding success. When King penguin colonies are censused, counts tend to made at the same time of year to provide at least a relative comparision between years (e.g. DeLord et al 2004).

Description

King penguins are the second largest penguins alive today in terms of size and body weight. The largest penguins are the King penguins’ cousins, the emperor penguins. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature classifies King penguins as “Least Concern”.

Ecology

The genus name Aptenodytes (“wingless diver”) had been assigned to King penguins. In 1778, John Frederik Miller, a British naturalist, chose the species name patachonica (later patagonica) for King penguins. Monotypic although subspecies were suggested in the past: In 1911, the amateur ornithologist Gregory Mathews suggested that there were three subspecies of King penguins.
One, Aptenodytes patagonicus longirostris, was dismissed but the two others were accepted by James Lee Peters, an American ornithologist who was the curator for birds at the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology (Peters 1931). But Peters accepted Mathews’ notion that A. p. patagonicus was characterised by a ring of blue feathers around the tarsus and occurred at the Falkland Islands and South Georgia. In contrast, the tarsi of A. p. halli were supposed to be white at the front and coloured at the back. A. p. halli was thought to breed at the Kerguelen, Crozet, Prince Edward, Heard, and Macquarie islands. However, examination of images of King penguins from different locations quickly shows that the vast majority of King penguins at any location has the two-coloured feathering on their tarsi. In 1936, Robert C Murphy also dismissed Mathew’s second argument for the division into subspecies, namely that the variations of the colouration in the penguins’ flippers were also ‘proof’ for the existence of subspecies (Murphy 1936). Murphy examined many specimens and found that the variations described by Mathew’s commonly occurred in all King penguin populations. In 1960, Bernard Stonehouse also concluded that there were no grounds to postulate sub-species among King penguins (Stonehouse 1960).
In one of the first genetic studies on King penguins French researchers compared DNA of King penguins from the Crozet and the Kerguelen islands. According to Mathews, these two populations should be very similar. However, the genetic distance between them was relatively high (Viot et al. 1993). This is further evidence that the division into subspecies as suggested in 1911 cannot be upheld.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Reaches up to 1cm long

Ecology

Heterophoxus videns is a voracious predator and eats animals at the sediment surface such as settling larvae, small or young worms, other crustaceans, sponges and diatoms. It and other predatory under-surface crustaceans probably play a major role in the composition and size of polychaete populations. Its predators include Trematomus fish

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Large and variable in colour, with red blotches. Reaches up to around 40cm across

Source Name

EG-BAMM, B. Wienecke

Identification

Gentoo penguins are the largest among the pygoscelid (brush tailed) penguins and their distinctive head pattern makes them easy to identify.
Two subspecies are recognised: Pygoscelis papua papua and the smaller P. p. ellsworthii. The former breeds at the Falkland Islands where about 36% of the global population is at home, as well as on South Georgia where another 30% of Gentoo penguins are found; small numbers also occur at Staten, Heard and Macquarie islands.
P. p. ellsworthii breeds at the Antarctic Peninsula, the South Orkney and the South Shetland islands.

Size

The global population of Gentoo penguins is estimated to comprise about 314,000 breeding pairs. The size of their colonies varies markedly and they can comprise as little as a dozen nests or more than 2000. The colonies are rather loosely dispersed with inter-nest differences averaging 80-100 cm. Nest site fidelity was very high at South Georgia but less so at King George Island.
The population trends differ with region. While increases in colony size appear to occur in the Antarctic Peninsula region (~ 25% of global population), decreases have been reported from populations in the sub-Antarctic where the remaining 75% of Gentoo penguins live. The decreases also vary with region but the causes for the decreases have so far not been explained. Human disturbance and interactions with commercial fishing operations are major threats.

Description

Gentoo penguins belong to the pygoscelid or brush tail penguins that also include Chinstrap and Adélie penguins. Males and females look very much alike but females tend to be slightly smaller, particularly with regard to the beak depth and length.
Gentoo penguins stand about 60 cm tall with both feet on the ground and their heads pulled in. The colouration of the sexes is identical; head, throat, back and flippers are dark bluish-black while the chest, belly and underside of the flippers are white. The black and white body parts are clearly separated. Above the eyes are two white patches that often join across the crown. A dusting of white feathers is sprinkled around their head, nape and upper back.
The top of the beaks and their tips are black but the sides are orange to red. The feet are pinkish-orange to red and the irises are brown.
Juveniles can be distinguished from adults only in their first year when the white patches on their heads are discontinuous and the rings around the eyes are still white; some Gentoo penguins appear to retain the white eye rings into adulthood. Juveniles are also often smaller than fully grown adults
As in all penguins, the body mass of Gentoo penguins is highly variable throughout the year. At the beginning of their breeding cycle, these penguins weigh usually 4.8 – 5.7 kg. Post-breeding and prior to the moult they can reach a body mass of more than 8 kg.
Like Chinstrap and Adelie penguins, their tail feathers are much longer compared to other penguin species.

Ecology

The onset of breeding among Gentoo penguins appears to be dependent upon the latitudes of the colonies. Populations south of 50°S start their breeding cycle in spring to early summer (Oct-Nov) while those breeding north of 50°S breed during the winter (Jun-Aug). Gentoo penguins do not necessarily breed every year. Every now and then an individual skips a season, especially when it was unsuccessful in the previous season or when environmental conditions are poor, e.g. a lot of sea ice is present. However, when they engage in reproductive activities the partners share the incubation duty and change over frequently, usually every 2-3 days. Breeding success is highly variable among colonies and between years but often only one chick is raised successfully. Nest failure is due to nest desertion, mismatched nest relief, infertility of eggs or predators.
The level of fidelity to a previous mate or nest site varies among years. In years when the return rate to the colony is low, few if any birds retain their previous partners. However, in years when many penguins attempt to breed mate fidelity can be as high as about 90%.
The main predators are skuas, giant petrels, Kelp gulls (Larus dominicanus), fur seals and, on some islands, feral cats. Southern elephant seals are occasionally observed to cause havoc among colonies at Macquarie Island.

Source Name

EG-BAMM, Alexander E. Thornton & Andres Barbosa

Identification

Chinstrap penguins hatch with a light gray down covering their bodies, which is replaced by a slightly darker shade a few weeks later. Juvenile birds will moult into adult plumage within the first year, the standard pattern of which finds their back and top of their head covered in black feathers on an otherwise white body and face aside from a thin, black band of feathers found underneath their chin, seemingly connecting the external openings to their ear canals - hence their given moniker. Until approximately 14 months, juvenile plumage is easily distinguished by the flecking of black feathers on their face (Trivelpiece & Trivelpiece 2013). The white feathers along their underside help camouflage them to prevent attacks from predators below while dark feathers along their backs also help them blend into their environment when viewed from above. Their flippers are black with white undersides and have a black ring around amber-coloured eyes. As well, the species possess black beaks with a slight hooked tip and pink feet with darker soles. Mature birds will grow up to 75 centimetres in length and weigh in within an approximate range of 3.5 to 5.5 kg (Trivelpiece & Trivelpiece 2013) and display very slight sexual dimorphism favouring males; sex can only be determined using complex discriminant analyses based on species morphometrics.

Size

In the 1990s the chinstrap population was approximately 7.5 million breeding pairs (Woehler 1995), but their range and distribution is changing due to factors like climate change and increasing frequency of interactions with krill fisheries or tourists. Since the 1970s, their global populations have been in decline (Trivelpiece & Trivelpiece 2013), especially along the Antarctic Peninsula. While they are listed by the IUCN as a species of least concern, researchers are calling for a reclassification of the species in the face of threats, even going so far as calling them an important bioindicator of regional change and “among the most vulnerable penguins in Antarctica” (BirdLife International 2012, Cimino et al. 2012). Conservation legislation like the Antarctic Treaty and the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources protects the majority of chinstrap penguins, who fall within the jurisdiction of these international agreements in the Southern Ocean (Trivelpiece & Trivelpiece 2013).

Description

First described by Johan Reinhold Forster (1781), chinstrap penguins are an ice-intolerant species. They are one of the most easily recognisable penguin species, named for a distinctive, thin band of black feathers that runs across their chin, appearing as a chinstrap connecting black feathers across the crown of their skull and back against an otherwise white body. The penguin phylogenetic tree finds pygoscelid (“brush-tailed”) species branching off from a common ancestor of extant penguins anywhere between 20 and 38 million years ago, with chinstrap penguins diversifying from Adélies several million years later.

Ecology

Chinstrap display very slight sexual dimorphism favouring males, but sex can only be definitively determined using complex discriminant analyses based on morphometrics. Their average lifespan is between 16 and 20 years (Trivelpiece & Trivelpiece 2013). The primary predators of chinstrap chicks are the brown skuas (Catharacta antarctica lönnbergi), south polar skuas (C. maccormicki), and giant petrels (Macronectes giganteus) (Trivelpiece & Trivelpiece 2013). As adults chinstrap penguins are the prey of leopard seals (Hydrurga leptonyx) and killer whales (Orcinus orca) (Trivelpiece & Trivelpiece 2013, Pitman & Durban 2010).

Diseases and Parasites: A review of the parasites and pathogens present in chinstrap penguins can be found in Barbosa & Palacios (2009). The presence of several gastrointestinal parasites, such as nematodes (Stegophorus macronectes) or cestodes (Parorchites zederi, Tetrabothrius pauliani) and other accidental parasites as Corynosoma sp. have been recorded in this species. These helminth parasites have been estimated to reduce the body mass of chicks by 6%. Ticks, which also pose health risks to penguins, are also found close to the nests. No intestinal protozoa parasites, such as Cryptosporidium sp. or Giardia sp. have been found in chinstraps, although coccidian (Eimeria pygosceli, Isospora sp. and Sacorcystis sp.) are usually found. Furthermore, some bacteria have been identified, including Staphylococcus sp., Streptococcus sp. or Pseudomonas sp., as well as antibodies for influenza A.

Source Name

EG-BAMM, Matthias Kopp

Identification

The general appearance of the Brown Skua is gull-like but they are more bulky, have a hooked bill and sharp claws like a bird of prey; overall looking more powerful and aggressive (than what they actually are). They are strong flyers and can easily outrace similar sized or even much larger birds, performing strong direct flights with constant shallow wing beets. They have a complete brownish colour whereas some white feather tips give the bird a flecked appearance. At the end of the breeding season the body feathers look more and more used and more feather tips become white. Both sexes emit at least three call types depending on the behavioral context: alarm, contact and long call (Janicke et al. 2007).
Brown Skua has an average wing span of 147 cm (64 cm long) and a mean mass of 1730 gram (range: 1420 – 2310 gram, n = 178, dataset originates from adult skuas from King George Island/ South Shetland Islands. The sexes in the Brown Skuas are similar in appearance, though in some (41% at Fildes Peninsula) cases males are darker than females (Peter et al. 1990). However, they differ in their size, with females being larger and heavier than males, known as reverse sexual dimorphism.
In its breeding range there is, beside in the zone of sympatric occurrence with south polar skuas, no species to mistake for the Brown Skua. South Polar Skuas are overall smaller and more gracile. In that area, most South Polar Skuas are dark morphes with dark brown feathers on the back and the prominent golden hackles on the neck. The body feathers are uniformly a lighter brown than the feathers on the back. However, even though there are size and colour differences between the two species it is not always possible to distinguish them exactly.

Size

The Brown Skua Catharacta antarctica lonnbergi is evaluated in the Red List of Threatened Species as Least Concern. That is based on: firstly the huge range of occurrence, which is circumpolar, mostly on remote, isolated Sub-Antarctic islands; secondly, the population trend appears to be stable. According to BirdLife International the population is placed in the band 10 000 – 20 000 individuals.

Description

The Brown Skua is the biggest of all southern hemisphere skua species. The current phylogenetic classification identifies three families in the order Lariformes in the high latitudes of the southern hemisphere: gulls, terns and skuas. Herein the skuas (Stercorariidae) for their part occur with three species: S. maccormicki, S. chilensis and S. antarcticus. The latter of which is subdivided into three sub-species: S. a. antarcticus, S. a. lonnbergi and S. a. hamiltoni (Ritz et al. 2008).

Ecology

Within their huge breeding range, Brown Skuas experience a wide variety of climatic conditions, having consequences for the non-breeding period distribution. Brown Skuas do not necessarily migrate big distances but, typically for pelagic birds, they usually do leave the breeding grounds and return to land only for breeding. How far they move depends on the breeding area, whereas the northern breeding populations stay close to the breeding ground and the southern populations migrate further north. Herein the migration pattern and wintering areas are largely unknown (Olsen and Larsson 1997). Museum skins and colour slights of C. a. lonnbergi-specimens found/sighted at the northern hemisphere appeared to be misidentified being rather South Polar Skuas (Devillers 1977). Phillips et al. (2007) firstly used tracking devices for getting insight into migration patterns and wintering areas of that species. The study showed that Brown Skuas breeding at Bird Island/ South Georgia are leaving the breeding area and wintering over deep oceanic water in the Argentine basin between the Antarctic Polar Front and the northern sub-tropical-front.

Source Name

EG-BAMM, Anne-Mathilde Thierry

Identification

Adélie penguins have a very distinctive black and white robe, and a white ring around the eyes. The beak is dark reddish in colour with a black tip. They measure 60-70 cm in height. Depending on the timing of the year, they can weigh between 3 and 8 kg. Average weight during the chick-rearing period (when penguins regularly forage at sea) is typically 4.5-6 kg. Sexes are alike, but males are slightly larger and heavier than females. Fledglings and yearlings have white chins and throats.

Size

The total number of breeding pairs is about 2.5 million (range: 1.8 - 2.9 million). Numbers are increasing in the Ross Sea region and decreasing in the Antarctic Peninsula, with an overall increase of the net global population (Ainley et al. 2010). However, the species is expected to undergo a 30 % population decline over the next three generations due to the effects of projected climate change, in particular in relation with a decrease in sea-ice concentration. Consequently, the species is listed as Near Threatened by IUCN since 2012.

Description

Adélie penguin is one of the most common penguin species along the Antarctic coast, and it is probably also the most studied species. They are obligate inhabitants of the pack ice that surrounds the Antarctic continent. They breed from late October to early March in colonies that are found on ice-free coastal areas. During this time, they alternate between foraging trips at sea and sojourns on land to incubate the egg or rear their two chicks. After breeding and moulting, they spend the winter in the pack ice.
Jacques Hombron and Honoré Jacquinot published the first scientific description of Adélie penguins in 1841. These two surgeons and naturalists were part of an expedition led by French explorer Jules Sébastien César Dumont d’Urville, which was the first to reach the Antarctic continent. The section of the Antarctic coast discovered in January 1840 was named Terre Adélie after the explorer’s wife, Adèle. The first specimens of Adélie penguins were collected at this site, and named after it.

Ecology

Adélie penguins face predation by leopard seals and occasionally killer whales at sea, as well as giant petrels and skuas on land. Today the threats of global environmental change, and competition from commercial fishing, threaten the future of Adélie penguins, which rely on sea-ice and krill to breed.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Yellowish and translucent, but often covered in sediment so that its appearance is obscured, however the siphons are distinct. The main body lies flat along the substrate, growing to a length of 17cm.

Ecology

Ascidia challengeri has been shown to grow fast at first (up to 7.5cm in two years), but growth slows as it gets older. It is a suspension feeder, mostly sifting out detritus that has been re-stirred up from the sea floor. Ascidians have a low energy content and appear to be generally unattractive to potential predators, although they have occasionally been found in the stomachs of fish and brittle stars. Ascidia challengeri spawns during the Antarctic summer.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Orange in colour. This mid-sized squirt can get up to 20cm high and about half this in diameter. It has a round to phallic shaped upper, which feels quite solid to touch. Like in Sycozoa species the clearly visible zooids are arranged circling around the common cloaca. The lower stalk, from which several upper parts may come from, feels much tougher

Ecology

S. adareanum is quite conspicuous as orange blobs in mature hard substratum communities. Unlike other colonial ascidians, though like some Aplidium species (not shown), they rarely occur as epibionts. The specimen shown is clean but some can be quite sediment strewn and even have particles incorporated into the outer test. Like other ascidians they are suspension feeders filtering phytoplankton. Their predators are unknown to date.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Yellow to orange in colour. This species is encrusting and has a membranous front to each zooid. The individuals can be seen clearly with the naked eye – they look shiny when they dry out. This is not an easy species to separate from a number of other encrusting bryozoans.

Ecology

The species is common in the shallows, particularly in highly disturbed areas and places with high water flow. It is a highly aggressive species and fights all other colonies it meets of the same species, unlike most other encrusting species. # It is a suspension feeder, eating phytoplankton. It is probably grazed by limpets and echinoids.

Source Name

EG-BAMM, Jeroen CS Creuwels & Øystein Varpe

Size

The global population size is assumed to be 10-20 million individuals, based on at-sea estimates. The total number of breeding pairs of known colonies is approximately 0.5 million, a mismatch with the numbers at sea. All colonies may not yet be known, and the numbers of birds in the colony vary greatly from year to year. Therefore, it is difficult to establish global population trends. The large number of birds justifies the current IUCN status of Least Concern.

Description

The Antarctic petrel is a medium-sized petrel with a dark brown and white plumage. The dark brown parts may fade during the breeding season to pale brown. Head, neck and back are chocolate brown. Bill is very dark to black. The upperwing is dark brown with a large white bar over the secondary and first primary feathers, which is visible in flight. The underwing and belly are largely white. The sexes are alike, although males are slightly larger. The weight of adult birds fluctuates throughout the year between 550-800g, with peak weight around egg laying.

Ecology

The breeding biology of the Antarctic petrel is extremely synchronous; during laying, hatching and fledging most individuals are synchronized within a one week period. Antarctic Petrels lay one egg and do not relay. Individual birds return to the same nest each year, but occasionally they skip a breeding season. Birds generally return to the same partner and pair bonds are long-lasting, but divorces do occur. Antarctic Petrels are philopatric, which means that many return as a (sub)adult to their own native colony. Their age upon return or when they start breeding is not known. Longevity has not been estimated, due to lack of data, but it is expected that individuals may live up to 50 years old. In the colonies, adults are rarely taken by giant petrels or skuas. Abandoned eggs and young chicks, however, are vulnerable and heavily predated by skuas. Older chicks and adults are able to defend themselves against predators by spitting stomach oil. In addition, snow storms during the incubation or chick period may cause high mortality of eggs and chicks.

Identification

Myriam Schuller

Description

Two of these specimens are gigantic Polynoids. That from Sta. 30 is the largest, and measures 148 mm. by 31 mm. (without the feet) for 37 chaetigers. The other large specimen is from Sta. 107, and measures 110 mm. by 20 mm. (without the feet) for 37 chaetigers. The third specimen is much smaller, and measures only 60 mm. by 12 mm. (without the feet), also for 37 chaetigers. There are 15 pairs of elytra arranged as in Harmothoë. Except for traces of brown transverse hands upon the hack there is little colour in spirit. The bristles are conspicuously golden. Purplish-brown markings are discernible on the head except in the largest specimen. The head (fig. 4a) is roughly cordiform, and there are two pairs of almost contiguous eyes at the outermost edges of the prostomium. The lateral tentacles are inserted terminally, and there are no peaks. Most of the tentacles, etc., are lost, and the following account is a reconstruction from the three speci mens.

The palps are very long, reaching back to the tenth chaetiger. They are papillated, but the papillae, instead of being diffuse, are arranged in six rows of two or three lines of papillae. The median tentacle is lost. Below the median tentaculophore there is a subtentacular cirrus about half the length of the head. The lateral tentacles are about half as long as the tentacular cirri, which they otherwise resemble. They are papillated, and have a subterminal enlargement and a filiform tip. At the base of the tentacular cirri there are an aciculum and a few bristles. At the back of the head there is a conical fleshy nuchal pad extending almost to the level of the hinder pair of eyes. Behind this pad there is an occipital flap or gibbosity.

The elytra have become detached, and those belonging to the smallest specimen are lost. Those belonging to the largest example (fig. 4b) are huge, leathery, reniform structures, meas uring about 30 mm. by 21 mm. at the widest part. They are flesh-coloured, with the border op posite the hilum pigmented dark brown. Near the hilum they are thickly covered with small tubercles, but the rest of the scale has a dense covering of longer and shorter spines (fig. 4e) re­sembling those of Harmothoë crosetensis, interspersed with rather soft ovate vesicles. Both spines and vesicles are largest near the border opposite the hilum (fig. 4d). The elytra of the second of the large specimens are relatively considerably smaller, and are splashed with brown markings. They differ from those of the largest specimen in that the ovate vesicles are absent and are re­placed by a relatively small number of gigantic tubercles surmounted by clusters of long spines (fig. 4e).

The elytrophores are prominent, and pseudo-elytrophores are present. The dorsal cirri are set low down on the feet, and the cirrophores have a prominent lateral expansion. The dorsal cirri are lost in all except the smallest specimen, and in this they are hirsute, and reach to the end of the ventral bristles. The ventral cirri reach to the end of the foot.

The feet (fig. 4f) resemble those of Eulagisca corrientis (see Monro, 1930, fig. 11b). The dorsal ramus sends out a long sheathed aciculum behind and below the dorsal bristle bundle. The ventral ramus has a longer sheather aciculum in front of the ventral bristle bundle.

The dorsal bristles (fig. 4g) are very numerous, almost as long as the ventral, rather slender and pectinated. The ventral bristles (fig. 4h) are more numerous and finer than the dorsal. They have frills extending over about a quarter of their length, and a rather long and delicate uni-dentate naked tip. The anus is terminal.

This species is close to the type-species, E. corrientis McIntosh, but differs chiefly in the ornamentation of the elytra. The elytra of E. corrientis are smooth. McIntosh described them as comparatively smooth over the greater part of the area, and having a few clavate cilia at the pos terior border. Of the Discovery Committee's material a specimen from the Palmer Archipelago has a few elytra, and these agree with McIntosh's account, except that I see no cilia. Moreover. I suspect that the specimens attributed to McIntosh's species by Benham (1921, 43) may belong to the present species. Benham, in describing one of the second pair of scales, writes, "there are three large, broad, round-tipped conical tubercles near the external margin, and springing from the surface of the scale between them, but nearer to the margin are a few long, fine, cylindrical hair-like papillae. The concealed portion of the elytron bears numerous small, rounded, low, and highly refringent tubercles, only visible under a high magnification. There is no fringe."

At any rate the elytra in Benham's specimens were not smooth as in E. corrientis. Benham's account of the elytra is not in close agreement with those of my specimens, but that the ornamen tation is variable is shown by the differences between the elytra of the two larger specimens already noted.”

(Monro, 1939)

Source Name

EG-BAMM, Richard Phillips & Jose Xavier

Identification

The Black-browed Albatross is a medium-sized albatross, with a 200–240 cm wingspan and an average weight of 2.9–4.7 kg (females are smaller). It can have a natural lifespan of over 40 years. It has a dark grey saddle and upperwings that contrast with the white rump, and underparts. The underwing is predominantly white with broad, irregular, black margins. It has a dark eyebrow and a yellow-orange bill with a darker reddish-orange tip.

Size

The total population of c.700 000 breeding pairs is made up of 475 500-535 000 pairs in the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas), 74 300 pairs in South Georgia, 134 000 pairs in Chile and other populations (Antipodes, Campbell, Heard and MacDonald, Crozet, Kerguelen, Macquarie, Snares) (ACAP 2010, BirdLife International 2012). The species was recently downlisted (in 2013) from Endangered to Near-threatened). Nevertheless, it is one of the most common bird species recorded as bycatch in many fisheries, including longliners targeting tuna off South Africa, swordfish and Patagonian toothfish off Chile, tuna and other billfish off Brazil and in the High Seas, and Patagonian toothfish and kingclip off Argentina; black-browed albatrosses are also killed by trawlers in a number of regions, including off South America and southern Africa (e.g. Gales 1998, Bugoni et al. 2008).

Description

Thalassarche melanophris (first named Diomedea melanophris by Coenraad Jacob Temminck), is a large seabird of the albatross family, Diomedeidae; it is the most numerous, widespread and common member of its family around the Southern Ocean (particularly in the Atlantic sector). Note that the spelling melanophrys should be changed to melanophris following the decision of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Pale with distinctive flattened fronds and a hard stalk. Slow-growing, reaching a height of up to 50cm

Ecology

Calyx arcuarius is a suspension feeder. Its predators include the seastars Odontaster meridionalis and Acodontaster hodgsoni, and the dorid nudibranch Austrodoris kerguelenensis, although extracts from it have been shown to have antipredator and antibacterial effects.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Size

mounds typically between 20cm to exceptionally >1m in height

Description

Mounds of Mycale acerata and the starfish that eat them are a common feature of hard bottom communities. Although it has no programmed shape (like many sponges) it tends to form mounds like those made by termites with many smooth rounded lobes protruding. Sometimes M acerata is the most common sponge and one of the most important contributors of biomass. This sponge is particularly notable for being one of the few sponges, or even any Antarctic invertebrates, that grows quickly. Despite this it still grows somewhat slower than the fastest growing temperate or tropical sponges. In periods of food shortage this species and some others may actually shrink over considerable periods of time. It is not known how long this sponge lives but it could probably be many decades.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Small (a few cm) and usually orange or red with a stalk. The test is covered in fine hairs.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Small and greyish in colour, with its surface completely covered in flexible bristles, making it look more like a sponge than an ascidian. Pyura setosa grows up to 7.5cm long and smaller individuals may have a short stalk.

Ecology

Pyura setosa is a suspension feeder, siphoning through water and filtering out any food material. The bristles probably protect the siphon apertures to some extent. Other organisms such as bryozoans, red algae and other ascidians (recorded examples are Pyura discoveryi and Molgula enodis) may attach to the surface bristles and grow on large individuals.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

White, yellow or orange in colour. There are several morphs, many of which were once considered separate species. The commonly seen types are large (up to around 50cm high) and barrel or vase shaped, while the budding type is smaller (up to 15cm high) and vase or egg shaped.

Ecology

Observations suggest that glass sponges such as Rossella racovitzae are important in the colonisation of soft substrates. They deposit spicules which eventually form hard mats that other sponges, unable to colonise soft surfaces, can settle on. Rossella racovitzae reproduces by asexual budding as well as sexually. Asexual reproduction is unusual in Antarctic sponges. This sponge is a suspension feeder and contains diatoms living within its cells, but their role is unclear. The diatoms are photosynthetic and can use light which is transferred into the sponge body by the sponge spicules, which act as natural optical fibres.
The main predators of Rossella racovitzae are seastars, and the dorid nudibranch Austrodoris kerguelenensis.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Pale in colour with 5 relatively flexible arms.

Ecology

Little is known about this seastar. Its diet has been noted as including the bivalve Laternula elliptica, which lives burrowed into soft sediments. Other name: Diplasterias turqueti

Size

patches from a few cm to a few m in area

Description

Mats of Dendrilla antarctica a few cm thick often carpet shallow rocky surfaces, sometimes extending over 3 or 4 square meters. Although the species is typically almost luminescent yellow it can have a variety of colour. Its prickly appearance makes it quite distinctive but it is does not feel spiky to touch, its tissue is soft and squashy. Other than the spiky texture it takes the form of whatever it is growing over, so when it encrusts macroalgae it often extends in lobes into the water column – slicing through a lobe reveals the alga inside entirely surrounded by the sponge. D. antarctica is a good competitor for space, so underneath encrusting sheets can often be found a wide variety of animals that it has suffocated. The tissues of this species have antibiotic properties and contain endosymbiotic diatoms. Frequently one or more individuals of the large sea slug A. kerguelenensis are seen on any large patches of the sponge. Occasionally found on the under-surfaces of boulders but if lifted out of the water it dries out to a thin yellow slime.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Pinkish-red, wrinkled and leathery, with a short stalk. Looks similar to Molgula enodis, but has longer siphons and a rough surface. This is a small ascidian, growing to only 1 or 2cm high.

Ecology

Styela wandeli has been found growing on the surfaces of other ascidians, including Cnemidocarpa verrucosa, Pyura obesa and Molgula pedunculata.

Size

Up to 80mm

Description

Yellow to orange (Antarctic Peninsula) or milky white to transparent (Weddell sea). Some have white pigmentation on tips and ridges.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Usually red, with a tough, wrinkled, leathery test. Pyura discoveryi grows up to about 10cm long.

Ecology

Pyura discoveryi is a suspension feeder. Like most ascidians it will often grow on the surface of other organisms such as sponges and larger ascidians.

Identification

Brigitte Hilbig

Description

lorem ipsum dolor sit amet

Size

Up to 25cm in diameter and 40cm in height

Description

Cnemidocarpa verrucosa is probably the most common ascidian (sea squirt) in shallow waters and is fairly featureless – essentially resembling a translucent bag. It varies in colour from brown, through yellow to white and translucent. This species can be highly abundant and can dominate patches many metres in size. It is one of the best known of the Antarctic ascidians. It feeds during summer months and (like most of the benthos) has strongly seasonal reproduction, but unusually larvae are released in winter. Being almost just a ‘bag’ it has very low metabolic rates, even for Antarctic animals

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Orange/brown to translucent yellow in colour. This species is encrusting but the zooids stand upright connected by little ‘rootlets’ at the base. Many species of Beania occur in the Subantarctic and Magellanic regions but none in the Antarctic.

Ecology

This species is typically found under very large rocks, on cliff faces or particularly on shallow overhangs. It is an extremely good competitor, overgrowing nearly all other encrusters and many other animal types – it is also a common epibiont on, for example, brachiopods. It is a suspension feeder and eats phytoplankton. It is specifically eaten by the nudibranch Charcotia granulosa but probably also incidentally grazed by limpets and echinoids.

Ecology

This is a pelagic fish found in temperatures ranging from 2.1 to -1.4 °C. It inhabits both open waters and areas of pack ice in mid-waters. P. antarcticum is described as the most dominant pelagic fish in Antarctica, accounting for over 90% of the fish community in number and biomass (DeWitt 1970, Hubold & Tomo 1989).
The most commonly reported food items of P. antarcticum include krill, copepods, amphipods, euphausiids, molluscs, polychaetes, chaetognaths and ostracods. They may also switch to cannibalism in the absence of an adequate food supply.
P. antarcticum constitutes the diet of the large Antarctic predators such as whales (Andriashev 1965; Lauriano et al. 2007), elephant seals (Daneri & Carlini 2002), fur seals (Casaux et al. 2003) and Weddell seals (Burns et al. 1998, Fuiman et al. 2002); in winter, it is even consumed by crabeater and leopard seals (Lowry et al. 1988). It is an important component of the diets of gentoo, Adélie and emperor penguins (Ainley et al. 1998, Cherel & Kooyman 1998, Polito et al. 2002), and of birds such as skuas (Mund & Miller 1995), cormorants (Casaux et al. 1998) and cape pigeons (Creet et al. 1994). It is also a regularly occurring item in gut contents of other fish (Eastman 1985, 1999).
The life cycle of P. antarcticum begins in winter (August), when adults migrate inshore to spawn off the great ice shelves of Antarctica (Kellermann 1986). Compared to other nototheniids of the high Antarctic zone, both absolute and relative fecundities of P. antarcticum are unusually high, attaining about 18,000 eggs/female and 160 eggs/g, respectively (Hubold 1991, Kock & Kellermann 1991). Unlike other species, most of which spawn large eggs on the sea bottom, P. antarcticum spawn pelagic eggs of small size (about 2 mm) floating more or less freely in the platelet ice under the sea-ice cover (Vacchi et al. 2004). As a result, egg predation by other fish species, commonly reported in benthic feeders (La Mesa et al. 1997, 2004), is probably prevented or largely reduced by the inaccessibility of this unusual brooding site.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

As its name suggests Molgula pedunculata usually has a long stalk or peduncle, which may have fine hairs on it. It is large and fairly translucent and is typically 10-20cm.

Ecology

Antarctic ascidians grow relatively fast, appearing to be an exception to the Antarctic tendency towards large, slow-growing invertebrates. Molgula pedunculata has been shown to grow fast at first (up to 16.8cm in two years), but grows slower as it gets older. It is a suspension feeder, feeding mostly on resuspended benthic material, and it spawns between August and November.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Orange in colour

Ecology

This is a motile free-living species. Little is known of its ecology but it is opportunistic and has been reported feeding on decaying algae.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Size

Reaches up to 2.5cm in size

Ecology

Abyssorchomene plebs is an omnivorous scavenger and predator, and feeds in swarms on carrion, fecal matter and sometimes on live animals in a mass assault. It is preyed on by fish and the Antarctic tern (Sterna vittata) which probably eats it when carcasses containing amphipods get washed ashore. Abyssorchomene plebs reaches maturity after 18 months and reproduces and develops eggs in winter so that the young hatch out in spring. Experiments on this species have shown that the optimum temperature for its lifestyle is below freezing and it cannot tolerate temperatures much above 8 oC. This is probably the case for most Antarctic animals.

Ecology

Nymphon australe is the most frequently collected of all pycnogonid species in Antarctic area (Munilla & Soler-Membrives, 2009) and in the highest numbers (Arango et al, 2010). It is considered circumpolar and eurybathic, found in most Antarctic and subantarctic benthic collections. As most of pycnogonids Nymphon australe lacks a planktonic stage (Arnaud & Bamber, 1987).
Thus, it is of interest to understand how these marine organisms with an apparent limited dispersal capacity have achieved such wide geographical and bathymetric distributions. N. australe is classified within a group of Southern Ocean species of Nymphon sharing few morphological characters such as inflated ovigers, a robust body and setae present on trunk and legs. This group of species or 'australe-complex', is to be tested in a phylogenetic context using both morphology and molecular data to understand the diversification of the group, their relationships to other Antarctic (~60 spp.) species and also the evolutionary history of the cosmopolitan Nymphon (~270 spp.) (Arango et al., 2010).

Source Name

antarcticconnection.com

Size

85 to 100 ft long

Description

Largest of Earth's animals, the majestic Blue whale can be found in all the world's oceans. In summer, they frequent the fringes of the polar ice shelves, moving to tropical and subtropical waters during the winter months. They travel alone or occasionally in pairs, with the larger individuals occuring the farthest south. Once numbering close to 200,000 individuals, Blue whales were heavily exploited for their oil, meat, and baleen during the early to mid 1900's, severely reducing the species' population to near the point of extinction. Since the International Whaling Commission (IWC) imposed a hunting ban in 1966, Blues have returned to several areas of their former range, but recovery is slow (current populations are only 1% of their former numbers).

Blue whales are so named because their skin has a light-gray-and-white mottled pattern, which appears light blue when the whale is just below the surface of the water on a sunny day. Researchers use these skin patterns, which are unique to each animal, as a means of individual whale identification. Aside from the animal's massive size, distinguishing characteristics include its habit of showing its flukes when diving (other rorqual whales do not). Also, they have an unusually small dorsal fin which is set far back on the body.

Blue whales produce reverberating, low-frequency moans that can be heard in deep ocean waters up to 100 miles away. These moans enable the whales to remain in contact across a vast expanse of ocean.

Despite their enormous size, the Blue Whale's diet consists almost entirely of krill, tiny shrimplike crustaceans occurring in all oceans of the world. Feeding by lunging open-mouthed into dense groups of such creatures, they can consume as much as 4.5 tons in a day. Water and food rushing into the whale's pleated, expandable mouth is forced past hundreds of wide, black fringed baleen plates that hang from the roof of the mouth. The plates act like a sieve or comb, trapping the solid food inside the fringes and expelling the excess water. Occasionally working in pairs, Blue whales have been observed weave through schools of krill, apparently using each other's bodies to block the escape of their prey.

Female Blue whales reach sexual maturity at approximately 5 years of age. They may give birth once every two or three years. Mating occurs during the summer season, and the gestation period lasts about 11 months. A single calf is usually born the following spring; twins are rare. The calves nurse for seven or eight months, gaining as much as 200 pounds per day in the nutrient-rich Antarctic or Arctic waters.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Orange/brown in colour. This species forms long (up to 20cm) and branching sheet-like fronds. These are curled and have very distinctive long ‘hairs’ called vibracula over its entire inside surface. These move up and down to clear debris and possibly small predators away from its feeding tentacles. Deep-water specimens (100m+) are stringier and less branched.

Ecology

N. flagellata is an extremely distinctive endemic Antarctic species. It (suspension) feeds most of the year round, pausing for just three months mid-winter, and may live decades. The banding seen sometimes are areas of reproductive activity, not growth lines. The non-active surface is frequently covered with encrusting animals such as other bryozoans or polychaete worms.
The main observed predators of N. flagellata are nudibranch sea slugs, some small grazing gastropods and pycnogonans.

Source Name

EG-BAMM, Meagan Dewar

Identification

Humpback whales are generally dark on the dorsal side of the body, whilst on the ventral side; they have substantial areas of white pigmentation. The flippers are white on the ventral side, and vary from mostly black to white on the dorsal side. The flukes are dark on the dorsal side of the body and vary from all white to mostly black on the ventral side with distinct patterns. Researchers can use the distinct colouration patterns on the flukes to distinguish individual humpbacks as well as using other individually variable features such as serrations on the trailing edges of the flukes. Humpback whales grow between 11-18m in length, with males being around 1-1.5m shorter than females and weigh between 24-45 tons. Humpback whales live for around 50 years, becoming sexually mature at around 5-10 years of age.

Size

A worldwide population size of more than 60,000 individuals has been estimated but this is considered to be an underestimate of the total abundance as abundance data is not available for all areas, whilst the population size for the Southern Hemisphere is estimated to be around 36,000. Based on recent population increases and the limited availability of information on the global population size prior to 1940, it is unlikely that humpback whales are below the threshold (50% of the 1940 level) that would qualify the species for inclusion in the Vulnerable category under criterion A. In addition, as the current population estimates total more than 60,000 individuals, and the range of the humpback is not restricted, excludes the species from being classified under criterion B, C and D. Therefore the humpback whale is classified as Least Concern by the IUCN red list. The IUCN states, that although the encouraging global status of the humpback whales, concerns still remain about discrete and small subpopulations of humpbacks for which data is not available.
The population estimate of the Antarctic feeding grounds is estimated to be between 34,000 – 52,000 individuals. During the breeding season, Southern Hemisphere humpback whales migrate to one of breeding grounds (A – G). The population abundance for breeding stock A (Brazil) is estimated to be 6,500 individuals, breeding stock B (south east Atlantic) is estimated to be 9,800, breeding stock C (south western Indian Ocean) is estimated to be 7,000, breeding stock D (south eastern Indian Ocean, Western Australia) is estimated to be 33,800 individuals, breeding stock E (south west Pacific, north eastern Australia) is estimated to be 14,522 individuals and breeding stock G is estimated to be 4,000 individuals. Unfortunately for breeding stock F, there is no abundance available.

Description

The humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) is a species of baleen whale and is one of the larger rorqual species, ranging in length from 11 to18 metres and can weigh up to 45 tons. Humpback whales belong to the family of rorqual whales, which are characterised by their flat heads, pointed snouts, round bodies and having their dorsal fins set well back on the body. In humpback whales, the most distinctive feature is their long pectoral fins. Humpback whales not only have the largest pectoral fins of any cetacean species, but also the largest appendage of any living animal with their fins measuring over 15 feet in length or almost one third of the whale’s body. The size of these exceptionally large pectoral fins is also reflected in their Latin name, Megaptera novaeangliae, meaning “long winged from New England.”
Humpback whales perform some of the longest migrations of any mammals, with humpback whales migrating annually from their feeding grounds in the North and South Pole, to their winter breeding grounds in the tropics near the equator. During the breeding season, humpback whales are known for their remarkable surface displays and vocal songs sang by the males during their annual migration.

Ecology

Humpback whales grow between 11-18m long, with males being around 1-1.5m shorter than females, and weighing between 24-40 tons. Humpback whales live for around 50 years, becoming sexually mature at around 5 – 10 years of age. At birth calves are around 4-4.6m long and weigh around 1-2 tons. Humpback whales only give birth to one calf, with gestation ranging from 11.5 months, although multiple foetuses have been recorded in dead pregnant whales. Calves remain with their months for approximately 12 months.

Source Name

EG-BAMM, Jean-Baptiste Thiebot

Identification

The wandering albatross is a gigantic seabird (115 cm length, wingspan from 2.5 to 3.5 m) with plumage of variable coloration, whitening with age. The juvenile is chocolate-brown with a white face mask and underwing, while underwing tips and trailing margin are black. Underparts (breast, belly) become pure white with age. Back whitens first on upperparts, and a white wedge forms in centre upperwing, extending outwards to coverts. Even at whitest stage, black tips remain on outer tail feathers. The bill is pink and legs flesh-coloured. Confusion possible in identification at-sea with Southern Royal D. epomophora, Northern Royal D. sanfordi, Tristan D. dabbenena and Antipodean D. antipodensis albatrosses.

Size

Most recent comprehensive estimates give a total global population of ~6,100 pairs breeding in any given year (approximately 20,100 mature individuals). The relative contribution by locality is as follows: South Georgia (Georgias del Sur, ~25% of the global breeding population), Prince Edward Islands (South Africa, ~40%), Crozet and Kerguelen Islands (French Southern Territories, ~10%) and Macquarie Island (Australia, approximately four pairs breeding per year).
All populations have shown a decrease at some stage over the last 25 years. At South Georgia, the population has declined by almost 2% per year for the last 20 years, worsening to 4% decrease per year since 1997. The population on Crozet declined by 54% between 1970 and 1986 (by 1986, the population has been reduced by 53.8% from c. 500 pairs observed in the late 1960s). From the mid 1980s to late 1990s, populations from the southern Indian Ocean appeared to be stable or increasing. The slow upward trend for Crozet and Kerguelen Islands is thought to reflect improved adult survival and recruitment attributed to the Japanese long-line southern bluefin tuna fishery in the Indian Ocean moving away from the islands. However recent trends in these populations are less clear. On Macquarie Island numbers of breeding pairs have fluctuated considerably since the 1960s, with a maximum of 28 in 1968 and minimum of 2 in 1985. Over 70 years, it is estimated that global population decreases exceeded 30%.

Description

The wandering albatross (also referred to as 'Snowy albatross') is an iconic seabird of the Southern Ocean. This large, almost totally white, seabird is unmistakable as it glides effortlessly for hours around ships.

Ecology

The species is listed as Vulnerable in IUCN Red List, because of continuous rapid decline over three generations (70 years) at South Georgia, and strong decreases of Crozet and Kerguelen Islands populations between 1970 and 1986. Main cause of decline in this species (as with many other albatross and petrel species) is incidental mortality at sea in long-line fishing operations, because the birds may grab the baited hooks on the lines before they sink, or get entangled in the lines, generally resulting in drowning of the individuals. The consequences are reductions in not only adult survival but also juvenile recruitment. Because of its vast distribution range at sea, this species may encounter many different longline fleets indeed while foraging. The growth of the southern bluefin tuna long-line fishery in the Southern Ocean until the mid 1980s and subsequent development of the Patagonian toothfish long-line fishery coincided with the steady decline of D. exulans populations at Crozet, Kerguelen and Marion Island. Adult females are more likely to interact with the subtropical tuna fisheries as they generally distribute more northerly than males during the breeding season. The South Georgia population may be most at risk from recently developed longline fisheries operating in the south-west Atlantic throughout the year, whereas the Crozet and Prince Edward Island populations are most vulnerable to pelagic longline fishing in the Indian Ocean and Australian region. Juvenile birds forage mainly in subtropical waters where the tuna long-line fishery has expanded in recent times. Chicks are also impacted by the fisheries, as fishing hooks were found to have been ingested in half the number of chicks surveyed at Bird Island. Facing this situation, the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) has implemented measures which have reduced bycatch of albatrosses around South Georgia by over 99%. Recently, other Regional Fisheries Management Organisations, including the tuna commissions in the subtropical areas, have taken initial steps to reduce seabird bycatch.
On land, all breeding sites of wandering albatrosses are currently legally protected and access is restricted. However, some populations show severe reductions in breeding success owing to predation of the nestlings by alien species (such as cats on Kerguelen).

Source Name

EG-BAMM, Ian Staniland

Identification

Fur seals, unlike phocid seals, are able to turn in their hind quarters and walk on all four flippers, enabling them to run and achieve considerable speed on land. They also have short pointed external ears and adult males have external testes.
Both sexes have thick bodies and relatively long necks, which make the head look small. The shape of the snout is smooth and pointy and appears flat from the forehead to the nose, especially in males.
Colour varies with sex, age and time ashore but generally the fur is grey to brownish usually lighter creamier on the throat and chest. Adult males have a heavier mane around the thickened neck that has a more grizzled appearance due to white tipped guard hairs.
In pups, the fur is black until the first molt although lighter colouration is often visible especially around the face. 1 – 2 ‰ of pups are born blonde/white with lack of pigmentation in the guard hairs and retain this coloration for life. These are not true albinos as the skin and eyes are pigmented. Intermediate colorations of mottled black, brown and white also occur but are rarer still.

Size

There is large sexual dimorphism with males being up to 1.5 times longer and four times heavier than females. Bulls’ standard length is 180 cm (170-200 cm) weighing 130 kg (90-200). Adult females are on average 130 cm (115 – 140) in length and around 35 kg (20 – 50) in weight. Mean weights for new born pups are 5.4 kg for females and 5.9 kg for males with lengths ranging from 58 -66 cm.

Description

Antarctic fur seals are one of the most numerous mammalian predators in the Antarctic. The population was hunted to near extinction at the start of the 20th Century for its pelt. It has subsequently recovered with the current population estimated to be in the region of 3-4 million. Around breeding beaches small groups or individuals can often be seen porpoising through the water and will often stop to investigate ships or small boats. On land they are often aggressive and, during the breeding season, large aggregations can make access to beaches difficult.

Ecology

Antarctic fur seals are highly polygynous with territorial bulls defending harems of, on average, nine females. Territories are established on breeding grounds in October to early November, when the musty-smelling males are extremely aggressive in defence of their patch of beach. Females arrive a few weeks later giving birth a few days after coming ashore. Lactating females then alternate between short trips to sea (2-10 days) and periods ashore (1-2 days) suckling their pups. Pups are weaned at about four months old. Mating takes place a few days after the pup is born and the female gestates for just over a year, so that she is pregnant whilst suckling.
They feed mostly on krill, Euphausia superba, in the South Atlantic part of their range with myctophids and nototheniids dominating elsewhere. The predation of squid or penguins may also be locally or seasonally significant. They have few predators although leopard seals and killer whales are known to take smaller individuals particularly juveniles.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey

Description

Yellow or orange and flask-shaped. This large ascidian grows up to 22cm long.

Ecology

Pyura obesa is a suspension feeder and larger individuals have been found with varied organisms such as algae, bryozoans and other ascidians growing on them.

Source Name

British Antarctic Survey